Yuri, also called "girls' love" in English, is a type of Japanese media that focuses on close relationships between female characters. While lesbian relationships are often linked to this genre, it also includes stories about emotional and spiritual connections between women that may not involve romance or sex. Yuri is most commonly found in anime and manga, but it can also appear in video games, light novels, and other written works.
Themes in yuri come from Japanese lesbian fiction from the early 1900s, especially the works of Nobuko Yoshiya and stories in the Class S genre. Manga showing female homoeroticism began in the 1970s, created by artists in the Year 24 Group, including Ryoko Yamagishi and Riyoko Ikeda. The genre became more popular in the 1990s. In 2003, the magazine Yuri Shimai was created as the first publication focused only on yuri. A later magazine, Comic Yuri Hime, started in 2005, helping yuri become a separate category in publishing and creating a fan community.
As a genre, yuri does not focus on one specific audience, unlike male-focused genres like boys' love (BL), which targets females, or gay manga, which targets gay males. Although yuri originally aimed at a female audience, some yuri works are made for males, such as those in Comic Yuri Hime S, a magazine designed for male readers.
Terminology and etymology
The word yuri (百合) means "lily" in Japanese and is a common name for girls. White lilies have been used in Japanese literature since the Romantic era to represent beauty and purity in women. These flowers are now closely linked to the yuri genre.
In 1976, Ito Bungaku, an editor for a magazine called Barazoku (Rose Tribe), used the term yurizoku (Lily Tribe) to describe female readers of the magazine in a column called Yurizoku no Heya (Lily Tribe's Room). While not all women in the column were lesbian, the term yuri later became associated with lesbianism. For example, a male–male romance magazine named Allan started a section called Yuri Tsūshin (Lily Communication) in 1983 to help "lesbiennes" connect with each other.
The term yuri became linked to lesbian-themed manga in the 1990s, especially in a magazine called Lady's Comic Misuto (1996–1999), which often included lily flowers as symbols. When yuri was used in the West in the 1990s, it mostly described pornographic manga with lesbian couples for male readers. Over time, the term shifted to describe stories about emotional or romantic connections between women. By the mid-2000s, yuri was widely recognized as a genre for works showing same-sex female relationships, especially after magazines like Yuri Shimai and Comic Yurihime were created. Western companies, such as ALC Publishing and Seven Seas Entertainment, later used yuri to classify similar manga.
In Korea and China, the term "lily" is borrowed from Japanese to describe female–female romance media. Korea uses baekhap (백합), and China uses bǎihé (百合), both direct translations of yuri.
The term "girls' love" (gāruzu rabu, ガールズラブ) and its abbreviation "GL" were created in Japan in the 2000s as the opposite of boys' love (BL). While GL is usually used the same way as yuri, it sometimes refers to explicit sexual content in yuri manga, like the 2011 anthology Girls Love by Ichijinsha. However, this distinction is rare, and yuri and "girls' love" are often used interchangeably.
In the 1990s, Western fans began using shōjo-ai (少女愛, girl love) to describe yuri works without explicit sex. This term was inspired by how shōnen-ai (boy love) was used for BL works without explicit content. In Japan, shōjo-ai has a different meaning and refers to relationships between adult men and girls, which is not the same as how it is used in the West.
History
Nobuko Yoshiya was one of the first Japanese writers to create stories about love between women. She was a novelist who worked during the Taishō and Shōwa periods. Yoshiya helped start a new kind of Japanese writing about lesbian relationships, including the Class S genre from the early 1900s. Her books introduced many themes and story patterns that later influenced the yuri genre. Class S stories show lesbian relationships as very emotional but not romantic. These relationships often end when characters graduate from school, get married, or pass away. This genre was partly based on the belief that same-sex love was a normal, temporary part of female development before becoming heterosexual and having children. Class S stories appeared in Japanese girls’ magazines in the 1930s but declined because of government censorship during the Second Sino–Japanese War in 1937. After the war, same-sex friendships between girls became common in shōjo manga, but Class S stories lost popularity to stories focused on male–female romances.
Class S stories usually focus on strong emotional bonds between an older student and a younger student, or rarely, between a student and a teacher. These stories often take place in private all-girls schools, which are shown as peaceful, same-sex worlds for women. These stories highlight the beauty and innocence of their characters, a theme that later appeared in yuri. Some critics say Class S is a separate genre from yuri, while others call it a "proto-yuri" or a part of yuri.
In 1970, manga artist Masako Yashiro published the shōjo manga Shīkuretto Rabu ("Secret Love"), which tells a story about a love triangle between two girls and a boy. This work is considered the first non-Class S manga to show an intimate relationship between women and is seen by some scholars as the first yuri manga. However, most critics believe Shiroi Heya no Futari by Ryōko Yamagishi, published in 1971, was the first true yuri manga. In the 1970s, shōjo manga also included stories about transgender characters and cross-dressing, inspired by the Takarazuka Revue, an all-female theater group where women play male roles. These themes are most visible in works by Riyoko Ikeda, such as The Rose of Versailles (1972–1973), Dear Brother (1975), and Claudine (1978). Some shōnen manga from this time included lesbian characters, but they were usually shown for humor or visual appeal.
Between the 1970s and early 1990s, about a dozen yuri manga were published, most in the 1970s. Many of these stories were tragedies, showing doomed relationships that ended in separation or death. Because so few works were published during this time and most were sad, some scholars call the 1970s and 1980s the "dark age" of yuri. Some theories suggest that the focus on sad stories was because most shōjo manga from this time were tragic, regardless of being yuri. Others say these stories reflect "lesbian panic," where characters (and authors) reject their own lesbian feelings. Some scholars argue that the decline of Class S removed the only context for lesbian relationships, while others believe patriarchal forces caused the sad endings.
By the 1990s, sad story formulas in manga became less popular. In 1992, two important works helped develop yuri: Jukkai me no Jukkai by Wakuni Akisato, which moved the genre away from sad endings and stereotypes; and the anime adaptation of Sailor Moon by Naoko Takeuchi, which showed a positive lesbian relationship between Sailor Uranus and Sailor Neptune. The popularity of Sailor Moon led to adaptations in anime, films, and international markets, greatly influencing the shōjo and yuri genres. Uranus and Neptune became popular subjects in dōjinshi (self-published manga) and helped create yuri dōjinshi culture.
The success of Sailor Moon helped yuri gain mainstream popularity. By the mid-1990s, anime and manga with lesbian relationships became widely accepted. Kunihiko Ikuhara, the director of Sailor Moon, later created Revolutionary Girl Utena (1997–1999), a shōjo anime with female same-sex relationships as a central theme. This period also saw a revival of the Class S genre through the bestselling light novel series Maria-sama ga Miteru (1998–2012) by Oyuki Konno, which sold over 5.4 million copies by 2010. Another key author from this time was Kaho Nakayama, who wrote stories about love among women. The first Japanese magazines aimed at lesbians, many of which included yuri manga, also appeared during this time. These magazines covered stories ranging from high school romance to adult lesbian life, with varying levels of sexual content.
As stories about same-sex relationships became more common, some publishers created manga magazines focused on yuri. In 2003, Yuri Tengoku and Yuri Shimai became the first magazines dedicated to yuri. Later, Comic Yuri Hime (2005) and Comic Yuri Hime S (2007) were launched, and the two merged in 2010. These magazines covered a wide range of themes, from emotional connections in Voiceful (2004–2006) to explicit schoolgirl romances in First Love Sisters (2003–2008) and
Concepts and themes
The yuri genre focuses on close relationships between women, which can include romantic love, deep friendships, spiritual connections, and competition. While lesbian themes are often linked to yuri, not all characters in yuri stories are necessarily non-heterosexual. Welker explains that whether yuri characters are lesbians is a complex topic. Many characters in yuri stories do not clearly state their sexual orientation, leaving it up to readers to interpret.
Rica Takashima notes that Western and Japanese fans often expect different levels of intimacy in yuri stories. She attributes this to cultural differences. Western fans may prefer stories that show explicit romantic scenes between women, while Japanese fans often look for subtle hints and use their imagination to understand the stories’ meanings.
Although yuri has historical ties to shōjo manga (a genre for young girls) since the 1970s, yuri stories appear in all manga demographics, including shōjo (girls), josei (adult women), shōnen (boys), and seinen (adult men). Shōjo yuri stories often feature fantasy or fairy tale-like plots with characters inspired by the Takarazuka Revue’s "girl prince" style. In contrast, josei yuri stories usually portray realistic same-sex female relationships. Shōnen and seinen manga sometimes use yuri to show relationships between "innocent schoolgirls" and "predatory lesbians." Yuri-focused manga magazines include a wide range of content, from romantic schoolgirl stories to more explicit material.
In Japan, some works labeled as yuri by fans may not be seen as such by international audiences. For example, the Western audience views Sailor Moon as a magical girl series with some yuri elements, but in Japan, it is considered a major yuri work by yuri magazines. This shows that fans, not creators or publishers, often decide if a story is yuri. Sailor Moon was not originally intended as a yuri story but became one through how fans interpreted it.
Yuri stories rarely include explicit sexual scenes. Unlike boys’ love (BL) or yaoi, which often feature detailed sexual acts, yuri typically shows only kissing or gentle touching. Kazumi Nagaike of Oita University explains that the lack of explicit sex in yuri does not mean female desire is ignored, but rather that the focus is on the spiritual connection between women.
Most yuri stories from the 1970s and 1980s were tragedies, showing doomed relationships that ended in separation or death. Yukari Fujimoto, a manga scholar, identifies a common yuri story pattern called "Crimson Rose and Candy Girl." These stories feature two characters: "Candy," a smaller, lighter-haired, and more naive girl, and "Rose," a taller, darker-haired, and serious girl. Both characters share unhappiness from their lives and form a bond. Their relationship eventually becomes romantic, but the story ends with Rose dying to protect Candy from scandal. While tragic stories became less common by the 1990s, the "Rose and Candy" pattern still influences modern yuri stories, such as Bloom Into You, which often depict senpai (older) and kōhai (younger) relationships.
In Japanese lesbian culture, people in same-sex relationships may be called tachi (top) or neko (cat). Tachi refers to the more active partner, while neko refers to the more submissive partner. This is similar to the seme and uke roles in BL or the butch and femme roles in general lesbian culture. Modern yuri stories rarely follow these roles strictly, but the idea of an active and passive partner still appears in the genre.
Media
In the mid-1990s and early 2000s, some Japanese lesbian lifestyle magazines included manga sections. Examples are Anise (1996–1997, 2001–2003) and Phryné (1995). Carmilla, an erotic lesbian publication, released an anthology of lesbian manga called Girl's Only. Mist (1996–1999), a ladies' comic manga magazine, included sexually explicit lesbian-themed manga in a section about lesbian-interest topics.
The first publication marketed exclusively as yuri was Yuri Shimai, a manga anthology by Sun Magazine. It was released quarterly from June 2003 to November 2004, with only five issues. After Yuri Shimai ended, Comic Yuri Hime was launched in July 2005 by Ichijinsha as a revival. Like its predecessor, Comic Yuri Hime was published quarterly but later changed to bi-monthly (odd months) from January 2011 to December 2016, then became monthly. A sister magazine, Comic Yuri Hime S, was launched in June 2007 by Ichijinsha as a quarterly publication. Unlike Yuri Shimai or Comic Yuri Hime, Comic Yuri Hime S was aimed at a male audience. In 2010, Comic Yuri Hime S was merged with Comic Yuri Hime. Ichijinsha also published light novel adaptations of Comic Yuri Hime works and original yuri novels under their shōjo light novel line, Ichijinsha Bunko Iris, starting in July 2008.
After Comic Yuri Hime helped establish the yuri market, other yuri anthologies were released, such as Yuri Koi Girls Love Story, Mebae, Yuri Drill, Yuri + Kanojo, and Eclair. Houbunsha and Shinshokan published their own yuri magazines, Tsubomi and Hirari, respectively. Tsubomi ran from February 2009 to December 2012 (21 issues), and Hirari ran from April 2010 to July 2014 (14 issues). After a successful crowdfunding campaign, the creator-owned yuri anthology magazine Galette was launched in 2017.
The first company to release lesbian-themed manga in North America was Yuricon’s publishing arm, ALC Publishing. Their works include Rica ‘tte Kanji!? by Rica Takashima (1995–1996) and their annual yuri manga anthology Yuri Monogatari, both published in 2003. Yuri Monogatari collects stories by creators from America, Europe, and Japan, including Akiko Morishima, Althea Keaton, Kristina Kolhi, Tomomi Nakasora, and Eriko Tadeno. These works include fantasy stories and realistic tales about themes like coming out and sexual orientation.
Besides ALC Publishing, Seven Seas Entertainment, based in Los Angeles, also published yuri manga. They released English versions of well-known titles like Kashimashi: Girl Meets Girl (2004–2007) and Strawberry Panic! (2003–2007). In 2006, Seven Seas announced a specialized yuri manga line, including Strawberry Panic!, The Last Uniform (2004–2006), and Comic Yuri Hime compilations like Voiceful (2004–2006) and First Love Sisters (2003–2008). Between 2011 and 2013, the now-defunct JManga released several yuri titles on its digital platform before ending service in March 2013. As of 2017, Viz Media and Yen Press began publishing yuri manga, with Tokyopop following in 2018. Kodansha Comics started publishing both yuri and BL manga in 2019, and Digital Manga launched a new imprint for yuri dōjin manga.
As yuri gained recognition outside Japan, some artists created original English-language manga labeled as yuri or with yuri elements. Early examples include Steady Beat (2003) by Rivkah LaFille and 12 Days (2006) by June Kim, published between 2005 and 2006. More English-developed visual novels and indie games also used the yuri label. Examples include Highway Blossoms (2016) and Heart of the Woods (2019), both developed by Studio Élan. This growth was supported by the Yuri Game Jam, a game jam started in 2015 that happens yearly.
By the mid-2010s, yuri video games were officially translated into English. In 2015, MangaGamer announced the English translation of A Kiss for the Petals, the first yuri game with an English license. In 2016, MangaGamer published Kindred Spirits on the Roof, one of the first adult visual novels released uncensored on the Steam store.
Analysis
Yuri began as a genre in works aimed at girls and women (shōjo, josei), but over time, it also started to attract male readers. Studies have been done to understand the makeup of people who enjoy yuri.
The first magazine to study its readers was Yuri Shimai (2003–2004). It found that about 70% of readers were women, many of whom were teenagers or women in their thirties who already liked shōjo and BL manga. In 2008, Ichijinsha studied its two magazines, Comic Yuri Hime (targeted to women) and Comic Yuri Hime S (targeted to men). The study showed that 73% of Comic Yuri Hime readers were women, while 62% of Comic Yuri Hime S readers were men. The publisher noted that many men who read Comic Yuri Hime S also read Comic Yuri Hime, leading to their merger in 2010. For Comic Yuri Hime, 27% of women readers were under 20, 27% were 20–24, 23% were 25–29, and 23% were over 30. By 2017, the ratio of men to women readers had changed to about 6:4, partly because of the merger and the male readers of YuruYuri.
In 2011, Verena Maser studied Japanese yuri fandom, focusing on the Yuri Komyu! community and the social network Mixi. She received 1,352 useful responses. The results showed that 52.4% were women, 46.1% were men, and 1.6% did not identify as either. Participants were also asked about their sexuality, divided into "heterosexual" and "non-heterosexual." Results included: 39.5% heterosexual men, 30% non-heterosexual women, 15.2% heterosexual women, 4.7% non-heterosexual men, and 1.2% who identified as "other." Most respondents (69%) were 16–25 years old. Maser’s study showed that yuri fandom has roughly equal numbers of men and women, and highlighted the variety of sexual identities within the group.
In Japan, the connection between yuri and lesbianism has changed over time. While yuri was closely linked to lesbianism in the 1970s and 1980s, the connection has weakened. Japanese fans, journalists, and publishers recognize that yuri and lesbianism share some traits but can be separated as ideas. One editor, Seitarō Nakamura, said yuri is not about lesbians with physical relationships. In the 1990s, Japanese lesbian and queer magazines opposed mixing yuri with lesbianism, likely because yuri had previously been associated with male-oriented pornography.
Erin Subramian of Yuricon explains that many Japanese people see the word "lesbian" as describing people in pornography or in other countries. Maser agrees that yuri focuses more on ideals like beauty, purity, and spirituality than on sexual identity. She says yuri emphasizes "connection between hearts" rather than "connection between bodies." Nagaike studied letters in Comic Yuri Hime and found that many female readers identify as heterosexual. She argues that yuri is more closely linked to homosociality (friendship between people of the same gender) than to homosexuality, even though these ideas are not completely separate. Maser notes that the line between yuri and "lesbian" or "homosexuality" is unclear, as sources often use the term "lesbian" without clearly defining it.
Nagaike says yuri developed from the shōjo kyōdōtai ("community of girls"), which formed in all-girls schools in Japan before World War II. These schools allowed girls to create a culture separate from patriarchal influences, sharing ideas through Class S literature. Though this culture shaped girls’ views on femininity and independence, it faded when girls left school and faced societal expectations about marriage and family.
After World War II, as mixed-sex education became more common and Class S literature declined, cross-dressing and BL (boys’ love) became ways for women to resist patriarchal norms. The rise of yuri brought back Class S-style homosociality, which includes homosexuality. Nagaike argues that yuri does not align with the political vision of lesbianism described by philosopher Monique Wittig, who saw lesbianism as a way to challenge traditional ideas about women’s identity. Instead, yuri is closer to Adrienne Rich’s idea of a "lesbian continuum," which aims to challenge the expectation that everyone must be heterosexual.