Boys' love (Japanese: ボーイズ ラブ, Hepburn: bōizu rabu), also called BL (ビーエル, bīeru), is a type of fictional media from Japan that shows romantic relationships between male characters. It is usually created by women for other women, but it can also be made by men and enjoyed by men. BL appears in many forms, such as manga, anime, novels, video games, TV shows, movies, and fan-created works.
Although stories about same-sex relationships in Japan date back to ancient times, modern BL began in the 1970s with male–male romance manga, which became a new type of shōjo manga (comics for girls). This genre was called by different names, including shōnen-ai (少年愛, "boy love"), tanbi (耽美, "aesthetic"), and June (ジュネ). The term yaoi (やおい) started being used in the late 1970s and early 1980s among dōjinshi (self-published works) fans. It came from the phrase "yama nashi, ochi nashi, imi nashi" ("no climax, no point, no meaning"), which fans used humorously to describe amateur stories that focused more on relationships than on plot or character development. In the 1990s, the term "boys' love" was adopted by Japanese publications as a general name for male–male romance media aimed at women.
BL often includes men who look and act in a way that is not clearly male or female, called bishōnen. Women are usually not the main characters in these stories. BL emphasizes relationships between men and often avoids showing negative attitudes toward same-sex relationships. Some stories include scenes of forced relationships. A common feature in BL is the pairing of characters into two roles: seme, the more active partner, and uke, the more passive partner. BL is popular worldwide and has spread since the 1990s through official sales and online sharing. Scholars and journalists from around the world have studied and written about BL.
Etymology and terminology
There are several terms used to describe Japanese and Japanese-influenced male–male romance fiction. In a 2015 study by Kazuko Suzuki, five main subgenres were found among professional writers of this type of fiction.
Researchers have tried to explain differences between these subgenres, but in practice, the terms are often used in the same way. Kazumi Nagaike and Tomoko Aoyama note that "boys' love" (BL) and "yaoi" are the most common terms for this type of media. However, they avoid trying to define subgenres, as the differences between them are unclear, and the subgenres often share similar themes.
Suzuki’s study showed that there is no simple Japanese term that includes all subgenres of male–male love fiction written by and for women. The term "yaoi" is sometimes used in the West to describe Japanese-influenced comics with male–male relationships. American publishers preferred "yaoi" over "boys' love" because they believed the latter might suggest inappropriate themes. In Japan, "yaoi" refers to fan-made works (dōjinshi) and stories that focus on romantic or sexual scenes. Both "yaoi" and "boys' love" exclude "bara," a genre that also shows gay male relationships but is created by and for gay men.
In the West, "shōnen-ai" is sometimes used for stories that focus on romance rather than explicit sexual content. "Yaoi" is used for stories that include explicit themes. Western fans also use "yaoi" to describe slash fiction based on anime or manga. However, the Japanese use of "yaoi" to describe only explicit scenes can cause confusion with the Western use of the term to describe the genre as a whole. This difference creates misunderstandings between Japanese and Western audiences.
History
In ancient Japan, same-sex relationships and people who showed traits of both genders were common. Practices such as shudō, which involved same-sex love between samurai and their companions, and kagema, where male performers trained to become kabuki actors, were part of this history. As Japan modernized during the Meiji Era (1868–1912), it became less accepting of same-sex relationships, and laws were created to punish certain types of same-sex behavior.
During this time, artists who wanted to show same-sex love in their work often used indirect methods. For example, illustrations by Kashō Takabatake in a boys' comic magazine called Nihon Shōnen helped shape the image of bishōnen, which describes young men and boys with soft, delicate features often shown in same-sex relationships. The 1961 novel A Lovers' Forest by Mari Mori, which tells the story of a professor and his younger male lover, influenced the development of the shōnen-ai genre. Mori’s writing was inspired by European stories, especially Gothic literature, and introduced themes like Western settings, wealthy characters, and age differences between lovers that became common in shōnen-ai, yaoi, and BL.
In the 1950s, a new type of manga called gekiga was created to tell serious, adult-focused stories. This style allowed manga to explore real-life relationships and sexuality in a non-explicit way. Hideko Mizuno’s 1969 shōjo manga series Fire! showed male characters in same-sex relationships and connected them to American rock culture, making it an important work in this movement.
In the 1970s, a new type of shōjo manga focused on same-sex romance emerged. A group of artists called the Year 24 Group helped expand the themes in shōjo manga, drawing from Japanese and European stories, films, and history. Their works, such as In The Sunroom by Keiko Takemiya and The November Gymnasium by Moto Hagio, were among the first to show male homosexuality in stories set in European settings. These works were aimed at teenage girls and young women but also attracted adult readers who were gay or lesbian.
In 1971, the first gay men’s magazine in Japan, Barazoku, was published. This magazine influenced the development of shōnen-ai and inspired the creation of dōjinshi, which are self-published works made by fans. The term yaoi, used to describe male–male romance stories in dōjinshi, became popular in the 1970s. Early yaoi works often borrowed characters from rock musicians like David Bowie and Queen and were more explicit than shōnen-ai.
As shōnen-ai and yaoi became popular, publishers created magazines dedicated to these genres. In 1978, June magazine was launched, and by the 1980s, it became a common term for works showing male homosexuality. However, by the late 1980s, yaoi became more popular than shōnen-ai. Stories began to focus more on Japanese settings and older characters, as seen in works like Banana Fish and Tomoi.
In the 1980s, yaoi expanded into anime, music, and books. The 1982 anime Patalliro! was one of the first to show shōnen-ai themes, and other works like Kaze to Ki no Uta were adapted into videos. By the 1990s, yaoi was widely published in magazines, and the term boys’ love (BL) became more common than shōnen-ai or June.
In the 1990s, many shōjo manga included yaoi themes. A group of artists called Clamp, who started by making yaoi dōjinshi, created popular works like RG Veda and Tokyo Babylon. These stories were later introduced to Western audiences. In China, boys’ love became popular in the late 1990s but was later banned.
In the mid-1990s, a debate about yaoi occurred in Japan. Writers and critics discussed whether the genre was harmful or not, with some arguing it reinforced stereotypes. This discussion, called the yaoi debate, took place in essays published in a feminist magazine.
Concepts and themes
The main characters in BL stories are often described as bishōnen, which means "beautiful boys" or "young men with a mix of masculine and feminine traits." This idea appears in different ways across East Asia, but it became especially popular in 1970s shōjo manga and later in shōnen-ai manga. These stories were influenced by culture from that time, including music by artists like David Bowie, the 1971 film Death in Venice featuring actor Björn Andrésen, and traditional Japanese theater called kabuki. While bishōnen are not only found in BL, their androgynous appearance is often used to explore ideas about gender and sexuality in these stories.
In the late 2010s, BL stories began to include more masculine men with body types similar to those seen in gay manga. These stories often focus on older characters and strong, muscular bodies. A 2017 survey by Juné Manga, a BL publisher, found that over 80% of readers once preferred bishōnen body types, but now 65% enjoy both bishōnen and muscular types. Some experts say this change shows that the lines between BL and gay manga are becoming less clear. For example, an anthropologist named Thomas Baudinette found that some gay men in Japan do not see a need to separate BL from gay manga when talking about their media choices.
In BL stories, the two characters in a relationship are often called seme and uke. These terms come from martial arts, where "seme" means "to attack" and "uke" means "to receive." Over time, these words became slang in Japan to describe the roles of the more active and more passive partners in a relationship. A researcher named Aleardo Zanghellini says that the martial arts terms are important to Japanese audiences because they relate to the idea of samurai and their relationships with companions, which includes same-sex love. He believes this history influences how power and age differences are shown in some BL stories.
The seme character is usually older, taller, and has a strong chin, short hair, and a more masculine look. He is often the one who takes the initiative in the relationship. The uke character is usually younger, shorter, and has softer, more feminine features, like bigger eyes and a smaller build. However, the roles of seme and uke can also depend on who is more dominant in the relationship. Even if a character is not feminine, they might take the uke role if they are paired with someone more dominant. Anal sex is often shown clearly in BL stories, and the characters are usually facing each other instead of in other positions. The uke rarely takes the active role in sex; instead, they are often the one receiving attention from the seme.
Some BL authors focus on exploring the relationship between seme and uke, but not all stories follow these roles strictly. In some stories, characters switch roles, which can be playful or exciting. This idea is called "riba," which means "reversible." In other stories, both characters are shown as equally attractive and strong, or the more dominant character might take a passive role during sex. Sometimes, the uke character is more sexually aggressive than the seme, and these roles are called "osoi uke" and "hetare seme."
In the past, female characters had small or no roles in BL stories. Some researchers say this is because BL readers and characters often look for a type of love that is intense and forbidden, instead of the unconditional love from mothers. In some fan-made stories, female characters are either ignored or killed off, which some say makes it hard to enjoy both BL and likeable female characters. Other authors say that including women in BL stories might make the stories feel too realistic, which could take away from the fantasy aspect.
Since the late 2000s, women have appeared more often in BL stories as supporting characters. Some critics say early BL stories were seen as unfair to women, but over time, the genre has changed. This shift may be because readers and writers became more involved with yaoi, a related genre. BL stories often focus on strong, male friendships or rivalries, which can show how men can work together or compete. These stories sometimes show men overcoming challenges through emotional or mental struggles instead of physical ones. In recent years, BL stories have become more sensitive about gay identity, showing characters coming out and being accepted by others. Some stories even show gay couples starting families or getting married.
While BL stories often show gay men in positive ways, they rarely address real-life homophobia. Some experts say BL stories are more about entertainment than real life, and they often take place in fantasy, historical, or futuristic settings. When homophobia is shown, it is usually to create drama or highlight the strength of the characters' love. Some researchers believe that BL stories help people accept homosexuality by showing it in a positive light, even if it is not always realistic.
Media
In 2003, 3.8% of weekly Japanese manga magazines were dedicated only to BL. Some magazines that were active or no longer in use include Magazine Be × Boy, June, Craft, Chara, Dear+, Opera, Ciel [ja], and Gush. Some of these magazines were created as companions to shōjo manga magazines because they included content too explicit for all ages. For example, Ciel was created to go with Monthly Asuka, and Dear+ was created to go with Wings. In 2008, it was estimated that the Japanese BL market made about ¥12 billion each year. This included ¥250 million from novels each month, ¥400 million from manga each month, ¥180 million from CDs each month, and ¥160 million from video games each month. In 2010, it was estimated that the Japanese BL market was worth about ¥21.3 billion in both 2009 and 2010. In 2019, editors from Lynx, Magazine Be × Boy, and On BLUE said that with the growth of BL artists in Taiwan and South Korea, they have published some of their works in Japan, expecting the BL manga industry to become more varied.
The dōjinshi (self-published fan works) subculture began in the 1970s at the same time as the BL subculture and Western fan fiction culture. Similarities between fan works in Japan and the West include not following standard story structures and a strong interest in science fiction themes. Early BL dōjinshi were created by amateurs, not controlled by media rules, and often based on existing manga and anime. They were usually written by teenagers for other teenagers. Some professional manga artists started as dōjinshi creators. For example, the group Clamp began as an amateur dōjinshi circle making yaoi works based on Saint Seiya, and Kodaka Kazuma and Fumi Yoshinaga created dōjinshi while also publishing professionally. Some publishing companies review BL dōjinshi to find talented amateurs, which has helped some people, like Youka Nitta and Shungiku Nakamura, get careers in mainstream manga.
BL dōjinshi often feature male–male pairings from non-romantic manga and anime. Much of the material comes from male-oriented shōnen and seinen works, which include close male–male friendships that fans think have hints of homoeroticism, such as in Captain Tsubasa and Saint Seiya, two titles that helped popularize yaoi in the 1980s. Weekly Shonen Jump has many female readers who read BL, and some shōnen manga publishers create "homoerotic-themed" merchandise as a way to please their BL fans. BL fans may create stories about any male–male pairing, including pairing a favorite character or making up stories about two new characters and adding existing ones. Any male character can be the subject of a BL dōjinshi, including characters from non-manga titles like The Lord of the Rings, video games like Final Fantasy, or real people like actors and politicians. Amateur authors may also create characters based on abstract ideas, like the personification of countries in Hetalia: Axis Powers, or objects like salt and pepper. In Japan, BL dōjinshi are usually labeled with the names of the two main characters, separated by a multiplication sign, with the seme character listed first and the uke character listed second.
Outside of Japan, the 2000 broadcast of Mobile Suit Gundam Wing in North America on Cartoon Network was important for the development of Western BL fan works, especially fan fiction. BL fan fiction is often compared to the Western fan practice of slash, but there are differences. Levi notes that "the youthful teen look that easily translates into androgyny in boys' love manga, and allows for many layered interpretations of sex and gender, is harder for slash writers to achieve."
The first officially licensed English-language translations of yaoi manga were published in North America in 2003. By 2006, about 130 English-translated yaoi works were available for sale, and by 2007, over 10 publishers in North America published yaoi. Notable English-language publishers of BL include Viz Media (SuBLime imprint), Digital Manga Publishing (801 Media and Juné imprints), Media Blasters (Kitty Media imprint), Seven Seas Entertainment, and Tokyopop. Notable English-language publishers that no longer exist include Central Park Media (Be Beautiful imprint), Broccoli (Boysenberry imprint), and Aurora Publishing (Deux Press imprint).
Among the 135 yaoi manga published in North America between 2003 and 2006, 14% were rated for readers 13 years old and older, 39% were rated for readers 15 years old and older, and 47% were rated for readers 18 years old and older. American bookstores often forced publishers to label books conservatively, rating books meant for teenagers as 18+ and selling them in shrinkwrap. Diamond Comic Distributors valued yaoi manga sales in the United States at about $6 million in 2007.
Marketing played a big role in spreading BL from Japan to the United States, helping it gain a following among LGBTQ fans. The 1994 original video animation adaptation of Kizuna: Bonds of Love was distributed by Ariztical Entertainment, a company that focuses on LGBT cinema, and was marketed as "the first gay male anime to be released on DVD in the US." The film was reviewed in The Advocate, an American LGBT magazine, which compared it to gay art house cinema.
Many Western fans choose to pirate BL material because they cannot or do not want to get it through official methods. Scanlations and other fan translation efforts of both commercially published Japanese works and amateur dōjinshi are common.
When yaoi became popular in the United States in the early 2000s, some American artists began creating original English-language manga for female readers featuring
Demography
Suzuki points out that "demographic studies of BL media are not well studied and are needed in yaoi/BL research," but also says "most BL readers are women." About 80% of BL fans are female, and the group of people who attended Yaoi-Con, a former American yaoi convention, was 85% female. It is often believed that all female fans are heterosexual, but in Japan, some female manga writers are lesbian, and some female readers identify as lesbian, bisexual, or unsure of their sexual identity. A 2008 study of English-speaking BL readers found that 50%–60% of female readers say they are heterosexual.
Although BL media is mainly marketed to and read by girls and women, some gay, bisexual, and heterosexual men also read it. A 2007 survey of BL readers at a U.S. library found about one-fourth of the people surveyed were male. Two online surveys found that about 10% of the larger English-speaking BL audience were male. Lunsing suggests that younger Japanese gay men who dislike the "pornographic" content in gay men's magazines might prefer reading BL instead. However, some gay men are not interested in BL because of the feminine art style or the way it shows LGBTQ+ culture in Japan, which some think is not realistic. Lunsing also says that some parts of BL criticized by gay men, like stories with rape or unfair treatment of women, are also found in gay manga.
In the mid-1990s, estimates of the size of the Japanese BL fan group ranged from 100,000 to 500,000 people. By April 2005, a search for non-Japanese websites showed 785,000 English, 49,000 Spanish, 22,400 Korean, 11,900 Italian, and 6,900 Chinese websites. In January 2007, there were about five million results for "yaoi" online.
Female BL fans are sometimes called "fujoshi" (腐女子; "rotten girl"), a word that was first used as an insult but later used proudly by fans. The male version is "fudanshi" (腐男子; "rotten boy") or "fukei" (腐兄; "rotten older brother"), both of which use similar word structures to "fujoshi."
Analysis
People who enjoy BL media, which stands for Boys' Love, may be motivated by several reasons. These include a desire to escape traditional gender roles, the portrayal of idealized relationships, the idea of genderless love, support for LGBTQ+ themes, self-reflection, emotional storytelling, a dislike of typical romance stories aimed at women, pure entertainment, artistic value, and sexual interest. BL has been studied by scholars and journalists around the world, especially after its translations became available outside Japan in the 21st century. In a 1983 book about Japanese comics, Frederik L. Schodt noted that stories about gay male relationships in BL built on themes already present in shōjo manga, which were created for female audiences. Some Japanese critics believe BL allows people to avoid focusing on adult female sexuality by separating it from their own experiences, while also encouraging more flexible views of gender and rejecting traditional roles. For example, Kazuko Suzuki suggested that the genre’s popularity reflects a conscious rejection of male-dominated ideas about sexuality.
In 2003, Mizoguchi wrote that BL is a "female-gendered space" because most of its writers, readers, artists, and editors are women. Some English-speaking librarians have compared BL to romance novels. In 2004, Paul Gravett summarized theories about why BL appeals to women: some Japanese women may be tired of traditional male-female relationships in fiction, the male characters in BL may challenge stereotypes about feminine ideals, the genre offers a safe way to explore same-sex relationships, and female readers may see male characters as representations of girls.
Other scholars have pointed out deeper gender-related themes in BL. Some note similarities between BL and lesbian-themed pornography, and BL has been described as a form of "female fetishism." While early theories focused on how BL reflects resistance to traditional gender roles in Japan, others argue that BL’s popularity exists in different cultural contexts, such as Western slash fiction. Some theories suggest BL is similar to pornography, as it appeals to desires for eroticism or challenges gender norms. Mariko Ōhara, a science fiction writer, wrote about how she enjoyed BL stories as a teenager because they offered freedom similar to science fiction, unlike pornography made for men.
In 1998, Shihomi Sakakibara claimed that some yaoi fans, including himself, were gay transgender men. Sandra Buckley believes BL stories explore ideas about alternative gender identities, while James Welker described the bishōnen (beautiful young male) characters as "queer" and noted that Akiko Mizoguchi, a manga critic, saw shōnen-ai (boys' love) as influencing her own journey to becoming a lesbian. Dru Pagliassotti suggested that for Japanese gay and lesbian readers, BL is not as different from real life as some heterosexual readers claim. Welker also wrote that BL helps female readers escape not only patriarchy but also strict ideas about gender and sexuality.
Some gay and lesbian critics have criticized how BL portrays gay identity, especially during the yaoi ronsō (yaoi debate) of 1992–1997. A common criticism is that BL stories often feature male characters who are not explicitly gay but are in love with each other, which some argue avoids addressing real-world homophobia. The behavior of the uke (passive character) in BL has also been criticized for being overly feminine. Similar criticisms have been raised in English-speaking BL communities, with some fans expressing dissatisfaction with societal expectations about femininity.
BL has sparked legal and moral debates. Mark McLelland suggested BL could become a key issue in discussions about gender policies in education and employment. In Japan, some parents discourage children from reading BL, and in Thailand, unauthorized BL manga sold to teenagers in 2001 caused public concern. In 2006, an email campaign in Sakai City, Japan, led to debates about whether removing BL books was a form of discrimination. In 2010, Osaka’s government classified BL manga as potentially harmful to minors, restricting sales to those under 18.
In China, under Xi Jinping’s leadership, authors of danmei (a BL-inspired genre) have faced legal consequences. In 2014, at least 20 female authors were arrested for writing danmei novels online. In 2018, a BL author was sentenced to prison for creating "obscene material for profit." In 2021, a BL-based TV show was banned, and in 2022, new policies canceled all planned BL dramas.
Zanghellini noted that BL’s portrayal of underage characters in romantic or sexual situations may lead to legal challenges in countries like Australia and Canada, where child pornography laws could be applied to BL. In the UK, cartoons are not classified as child pornography unless they are used for grooming.