Boys' love (Japanese: ボーイズ ラブ, Hepburn: bōizu rabu), also called BL (ビーエル, bīeru), is a type of fictional media from Japan that shows romantic relationships between male characters. It is often made by women for a female audience, but it also has some male viewers and can be created by men. BL appears in many forms, such as manga, anime, novels, video games, TV shows, movies, and fan-made works.
Although stories about same-sex relationships in Japan have been around for a long time, modern BL began in the 1970s with male romance comics that became a new type of shōjo manga (comics for girls). This genre was called by different names, such as shōnen-ai (少年愛, "boy love"), tanbi (耽美, "aesthete"), and June (ジュネ). The term yaoi (やおい) became popular in the late 1970s and early 1980s in fan-made works. It was used humorously to describe amateur stories that focused more on sexual scenes than on plots or character development, often using male characters from popular series in unusual situations. In the 1990s, the term "Boys' Love" was used in Japan as a general name for male romance media aimed at women.
BL often includes themes like androgynous men (called bishōnen), minor roles for female characters, and stories that focus on close male friendships while avoiding discussions of societal prejudice against same-sex relationships. Some BL stories include scenes of forced sexual activity. A common feature is the pairing of characters into two roles: seme, the more active partner, and uke, the more passive partner. BL is now popular worldwide, spreading through international sales and online sharing of fan works. Scholars and journalists around the world have studied BL's culture and influence.
Etymology and terminology
There are several terms used to describe Japanese and Japanese-influenced male–male romance fiction. In a 2015 study by Kazuko Suzuki, five main subgenres were identified among professional Japanese male–male romance fiction writers.
Researchers have tried to classify differences between these subgenres, but in practice, the terms are often used interchangeably. Kazumi Nagaike and Tomoko Aoyama explain that while "BL" and "yaoi" are the most common terms for this type of media, they avoid defining subgenres clearly. They note that differences between subgenres are not well-defined, and even when separated, the subgenres share similar themes.
Suzuki’s research highlights that no single Japanese term exists to describe all subgenres of male–male love fiction created by and for women. The term "yaoi" is used in the West to describe Japanese-influenced comics with male–male relationships. American publishers preferred "yaoi" over "boys' love" because they believed "boys' love" might suggest inappropriate relationships. In Japan, "yaoi" refers to dōjinshi (self-published works) and stories with explicit sexual scenes. Both "yaoi" and "boys' love" exclude "bara," a genre that also depicts gay male relationships but is written for and mostly by gay men.
In the West, the term "shōnen-ai" is sometimes used for stories that focus on romance rather than explicit sexual content, while "yaoi" is used for stories with sexually explicit themes. Western fans may also use "yaoi" to describe anime or manga-based slash fiction. However, the Japanese use of "yaoi" to describe only works with explicit scenes can cause confusion with the Western use of the term to describe the genre as a whole.
History
In Japan, same-sex love and people who look and act like both a boy and a girl have been part of the culture since ancient times. Examples include shudō, which was a practice where samurai and their companions had romantic relationships, and kagema, which involved male performers who trained to become kabuki actors. During the Meiji Era (1868–1912), Japan adopted many Western ideas and traditions. This led to less acceptance of same-sex relationships, and laws were created to punish such relationships.
As these changes happened, artists who wanted to show same-sex love in their work often used symbols or hints instead of being direct. Kashō Takabatake, an artist, created illustrations in a boys’ comic magazine called Nihon Shōnen. These images helped shape the idea of bishōnen, which describes young men and boys who are often shown in situations that suggest close friendships or romantic feelings. These characters are described as having a mix of softness, weakness, and a sense of being temporary. In 1961, a book called A Lovers’ Forest by Mari Mori told a story about a professor and his younger male lover. This book is seen as an early example of the shōnen-ai genre. Mori’s work was influenced by European stories, especially Gothic literature, and introduced themes that later became common in shōnen-ai, yaoi, and BL, such as characters from wealthy backgrounds, age differences in relationships, and unusual settings.
In the 1950s, a new type of manga called gekiga was created. This style focused on serious, realistic stories for older readers. Gekiga helped artists explore real-life relationships and human sexuality in a way that was not explicit. In 1969, a shōjo manga (girls’ comic) called Fire! by Hideko Mizuno showed male characters in a way that suggested romantic feelings. The story also included scenes inspired by American rock music, which helped make it an important work in this area.
In the 1970s, a new type of manga called shōnen-ai began as a part of shōjo manga. This was made possible by a group of artists known as the Year 24 Group. These artists brought new themes and ideas to shōjo manga, drawing from Japanese and European stories, films, and history. Their works often showed male characters in romantic situations. Keiko Takemiya’s In The Sunroom (1970) is considered the first shōnen-ai story. Moto Hagio’s The November Gymnasium (1971) is another early example.
Other important artists of this time included Keiko Takemiya, Moto Hagio, Toshie Kihara, Ryoko Yamagishi, and Kaoru Kurimoto. Their works often told sad stories about androgynous bishōnen characters in European settings. These stories were aimed at teenage girls and young women but also attracted adult readers who were gay or lesbian. In 1971, a magazine called Barazoku was created. It was the first commercially available magazine for gay men in Japan and had a big influence on shōnen-ai.
At the same time, a culture of self-published works called dōjinshi grew. In 1975, the first Comiket was held, where amateur artists shared their dōjinshi. The term yaoi was first used by some dōjinshi creators to describe their work in a humorous way. Early yaoi works were often based on other stories, and they often used rock musicians like David Bowie and Queen as characters. These works were more explicit than shōnen-ai.
As shōnen-ai and yaoi became popular, publishers created magazines to sell these stories. Young female artists helped make yaoi a big part of the manga industry. By the late 1970s, magazines like June and Allan were created to publish yaoi and shōnen-ai stories. These magazines also included articles about homosexuality, literature, and illustrations. The term June-mono (or simply June) became another way to describe stories about male love, competing with shōnen-ai.
By the late 1980s, yaoi became more popular than professionally published shōnen-ai. Many yaoi creators used popular shōnen manga like Captain Tsubasa as inspiration. These stories began to focus more on Japanese settings instead of Western ones. In the 1980s, yaoi expanded into anime, drama CDs, and light novels. The 1982 anime version of Patalliro! was the first to show shōnen-ai themes. Other yaoi stories, like Kaze to Ki no Uta and Earthian, were adapted into videos.
As yaoi became more popular, editors of manga magazines began hiring dōjinshi authors. One example is Zetsuai 1989 by Minami Ozaki, which was originally a Captain Tsubasa dōjinshi that she turned into a new story. By 1990, seven Japanese publishers started selling yaoi stories, which helped the genre grow. Between 1990 and 1995, thirty yaoi magazines were created. Magazine Be × Boy, started in 1993, became one of the most important yaoi magazines of this time. The stories in these magazines were influenced by realistic stories like Banana Fish and moved away from the dramatic style of earlier shōnen-ai.
In the 1990s, more shōjo manga included yaoi themes. A group of artists called Clamp, who started by making yaoi dōjinshi, created popular works like RG Veda, Tokyo Babylon, and Cardcaptor Sakura. These stories were later published in North America and introduced Western readers to yaoi-influenced media. In China, *boys
Concepts and themes
The main characters in BL (Boys' Love) stories are often described as bishōnen, which means "beautiful boys." These characters are highly idealized and have both masculine and feminine traits. The concept of bishōnen appears in many parts of East Asia, but its specific style in 1970s shōjo manga (and later in shōnen-ai manga) was influenced by cultural trends of that time, such as glam rock musicians like David Bowie, an actor named Björn Andrésen who played a character in the 1971 film Death in Venice, and traditional Japanese theater called kabuki. While bishōnen are not only found in BL, their androgynous appearance is often used to explore themes of gender and sexuality in BL stories.
In the late 2010s, BL stories began featuring more masculine men with body types similar to those in gay manga. These stories often focus on muscular characters and older individuals. A 2017 survey by a BL publisher called Juné Manga found that over 80% of readers once preferred bishōnen characters, but now 65% enjoy both bishōnen and muscular types. Experts say this change shows that the lines between BL and gay manga are becoming less clear. One researcher noted that some gay men in Japan do not see a need to separate BL from gay manga when talking about their media consumption.
In BL stories, the two characters in a relationship are often called seme and uke. These terms come from martial arts and later became slang in Japan to describe the roles of the active and passive partners in intimate acts. A researcher suggests that the martial arts terms are meaningful to Japanese audiences because traditional stories about samurai often include same-sex relationships. The seme is usually shown as older, taller, and more physically strong, with a masculine appearance. The uke is often younger, shorter, and has softer, more feminine features. These roles can change depending on who is more dominant in the relationship. Anal sex is common in BL stories and is usually shown clearly, not just suggested. Researchers note that characters are often shown facing each other during these scenes, not in other positions like "doggy style." The uke rarely takes the active role in these acts.
Some BL stories do not follow the seme and uke roles strictly. Characters may switch roles for fun or to create excitement. This flexibility shows that some authors want to explore how these roles can be performed. A term called riba (short for "reversible") describes couples where the seme and uke roles are not clearly defined. In some stories, both characters are shown as equally attractive, or the more dominant character may take the passive role during intimacy. In other cases, the uke might be more aggressive than the seme, and these roles are sometimes called osoi uke ("attacking uke") and hetare seme ("wimpy seme").
Historically, female characters had small or no roles in BL stories. Some researchers say that mothers are often shown negatively in these stories because readers may be looking for a type of love that is different from the unconditional love they associate with mothers. In some parodies of BL stories that include female characters, the women are often ignored or killed off. Some authors say that women are rarely included in BL because their presence might make the stories feel more realistic, which could take away from the fantasy aspect.
Since the late 2000s, women have appeared more often in BL stories as supporting characters. Some experts say that early BL stories were criticized for being misogynistic, or harmful to women, because female characters were given minor roles. Over time, these negative portrayals have decreased, possibly because readers and authors became more involved with BL and other related genres.
BL stories often focus on strong, male friendships or rivalries, showing men bonding or competing. These stories sometimes show men overcoming traditional gender roles by forming equal partnerships. Like many romance stories, BL characters often face emotional or psychological challenges rather than physical ones. In the mid-2000s, BL stories began to show gay characters with more care and understanding, such as stories about coming out and being accepted by others. BL stories often show a more accepting society than real life, which some authors say is a way to support LGBTQ+ rights. Some longer stories show the characters forming families, living together, or even having children. TV shows like Ossan's Love are said to help people see BL stories as more connected to real life.
Even though BL stories give gay male characters more power, they often do not address real-life issues like homophobia. Some experts say that earlier BL stories focused more on realistic portrayals of gay life, but now they are more comedic and less serious. BL stories often take place in fantasy, historical, or futuristic worlds, and many fans see them as a way to escape reality. When homophobia is shown, it is usually used to create drama or highlight the strength of the characters' love. Some researchers say that BL is mainly a romance genre, and its focus on love may not always address the challenges faced by real LGBTQ+ people.
Media
In 2003, 3.8% of weekly Japanese manga magazines were dedicated only to BL. Some magazines that were active or no longer in use include Magazine Be × Boy, June, Craft, Chara, Dear+, Opera, Ciel [ja], and Gush. Some of these magazines were created as related publications to shōjo manga magazines because they included material considered too explicit for all ages. For example, Ciel was created as a companion to Monthly Asuka, and Dear+ was created as a companion to Wings. A 2008 report estimated that the Japanese commercial BL market earned about ¥12 billion each year. Novel sales made about ¥250 million each month, manga made about ¥400 million each month, CDs made about ¥180 million each month, and video games made about ¥160 million each month. A 2010 report estimated that the Japanese BL market was worth about ¥21.3 billion in both 2009 and 2010. In 2019, editors from Lynx, Magazine Be × Boy, and On BLUE said that because BL artists in Taiwan and South Korea have grown, they have hired and published some of their works in Japan. They expect the BL manga industry to become more varied.
The dōjinshi (self-published fan works) subculture began in the 1970s at the same time as the BL subculture and Western fan fiction culture. Similarities between fan works in Japan and the West include not following standard story structures and a popularity of science fiction themes. Early BL dōjinshi were made by amateurs and were not controlled by media rules. They were usually based on existing manga and anime and were often written by teenagers for other teenagers. Some professional manga artists created dōjinshi. For example, the manga group Clamp started as an amateur dōjinshi circle making yaoi works based on Saint Seiya. Kodaka Kazuma and Fumi Yoshinaga also made dōjinshi while publishing professional works. Many publishing companies review BL dōjinshi to find talented amateurs. This practice helped some people, like Youka Nitta and Shungiku Nakamura, get careers in mainstream manga.
BL dōjinshi often feature male–male pairings from non-romantic manga and anime. Much of the material comes from male-oriented shōnen and seinen works, which have close male–male friendships that fans think imply homoeroticism, such as in Captain Tsubasa and Saint Seiya, two titles that popularized yaoi in the 1980s. Weekly Shonen Jump has many female readers who read BL. Publishers of shōnen manga may create "homoerotic-themed" merchandise as a gift to their BL fans. BL fans may "ship" any male–male pairing, sometimes pairing a favorite character or creating a story about two original male characters and including established characters. Any male character can be the subject of a BL dōjinshi, including characters from non-manga titles like The Lord of the Rings, video games like Final Fantasy, or real people like actors and politicians. Amateur authors may also create characters based on abstract ideas (like countries in Hetalia: Axis Powers) or objects like salt and pepper. In Japan, BL dōjinshi are usually labeled with the names of the two main characters, separated by a multiplication sign, with the seme character first and the uke character second.
Outside of Japan, the 2000 broadcast of Mobile Suit Gundam Wing on Cartoon Network in North America was important for the development of Western BL fan works, especially fan fiction. BL fan fiction is often compared to the Western fan practice of slash, but there are differences. Levi notes that "the youthful teen look that easily translates into androgyny in boys' love manga, and allows for many layered interpretations of sex and gender, is harder for slash writers to achieve."
The first officially licensed English-language translations of yaoi manga were published in North America in 2003. By 2006, about 130 English-translated yaoi works were available for sale, and by 2007, over 10 publishers in North America published yaoi. Notable English-language publishers of BL include Viz Media under their SuBLime imprint, Digital Manga Publishing under their 801 Media and Juné imprints, Media Blasters under their Kitty Media imprint, Seven Seas Entertainment, and Tokyopop. Notable English-language publishers that no longer exist include Central Park Media under their Be Beautiful imprint, Broccoli under their Boysenberry imprint, and Aurora Publishing under their Deux Press imprint.
Among the 135 yaoi manga published in North America between 2003 and 2006, 14% were rated for readers aged 13 or older, 39% were rated for readers aged 15 or older, and 47% were rated for readers aged 18 and up. Restrictions in American bookstores often led publishers to label books conservatively, sometimes rating books meant for mid-teens as 18+ and selling them in shrinkwrap. Diamond Comic Distributors estimated that yaoi manga sales in the United States were worth about US$6 million in 2007.
Marketing played a big role in spreading BL from Japan to the United States, helping it attract a following of LGBTQ fans in the United States. The 1994 original video animation adaptation of Kizuna: Bonds of Love was distributed by Ariztical Entertainment, which focuses on LGBT cinema. The company marketed the film as "the first gay male anime to be released on DVD in the US." The film was reviewed in The Advocate, an American LGBT magazine, which compared it to gay art house cinema.
Many Western fans choose to pirate BL material because they cannot or do not want to get it through official methods. Fan translations of commercially published Japanese works and amateur dōjinshi are common.
When yaoi became popular in the United States in the early 2000s, some American artists began creating original English-language manga for female readers featuring male–male couples called "American yaoi." The first known commercially published original English-language yaoi comic was Sexual Espionage #1 by Daria McGrain, published by Sin Factory in May 2002. As international artists created yaoi works, the term "American yaoi" was no longer used and replaced with terms like "original English language yaoi," "global yaoi," and "global BL." Most publishers creating original English-language yaoi manga are no longer active, including Yaoi Press, DramaQueen, and Iris Print. Digital Manga Publishing last published original English-language y
Demography
Suzuki points out that "studies about who reads BL media are not well done and need more research," but also says "most BL readers are women." About 80% of BL fans are female, and a now-closed American yaoi convention called Yaoi-Con had 85% female members. It is often believed that all female fans are heterosexual, but in Japan, some lesbian manga writers and female readers who are lesbian, bisexual, or unsure about their sexual identity exist. A 2008 survey of English-speaking BL readers found that 50%–60% of women identified as heterosexual.
Although BL media is mainly marketed to and read by girls and women, some gay, bisexual, and heterosexual men also read it. A 2007 survey of BL readers at a U.S. library found about one-fourth of the people surveyed were male. Two online surveys showed that about 10% of English-speaking BL readers were male. Lunsing suggests that some younger Japanese gay men who dislike "pornographic" content in gay men’s magazines may prefer BL instead. However, some gay men avoid BL because of its feminine art style or unrealistic portrayals of LGBT life in Japan and instead read gay manga, which some believe is more realistic. Lunsing notes that some criticisms of BL, such as rape fantasies, unfair treatment of women, and characters not identifying as gay, also appear in gay manga.
In the mid-1990s, estimates of the Japanese BL fan group ranged from 100,000 to 500,000 people. By April 2005, a search for non-Japanese websites found 785,000 English, 49,000 Spanish, 22,400 Korean, 11,900 Italian, and 6,900 Chinese websites. In January 2007, there were about five million online mentions of yaoi.
Female fans of BL are sometimes called "fujoshi" (a term meaning "rotten girl" that was later used proudly by fans). The male version is "fudanshi" ("rotten boy") or "fukei" ("rotten older brother"), both of which use similar wordplay to "fujoshi."
Analysis
People who enjoy boys' love (BL) media may be motivated by many reasons. These include a desire to escape traditional gender roles, the idealized portrayal of relationships, the idea of love without strict gender labels, support for same-sex relationships, personal reflection, emotional storytelling, a dislike for typical romance stories aimed at women, escapism, appreciation for art and beauty, entertainment, and the excitement of romantic or sexual themes.
BL media, culture, and its fan community have been studied by scholars and journalists worldwide, especially after translations of BL became available outside Japan in the 21st century. In a 1983 book about Japanese comics, Frederik L. Schodt noted that stories about gay male relationships in BL built on themes already present in shōjo manga, which were popular among girls. Some Japanese critics believe BL allows audiences to avoid focusing on adult female sexuality by separating romantic or sexual elements from their own lives. It also helps people think about gender and sexuality in more flexible ways and challenges traditional expectations about how men and women should behave. For example, Kazuko Suzuki said that the genre's popularity reflects a growing dislike of ideas that promote male dominance in relationships.
In 2003, Mizoguchi wrote that BL is a space mainly shaped by women, as most writers, readers, artists, and editors in the genre are female. Some English-speaking librarians have compared BL to romance novels. In 2004, Paul Gravett suggested that Japanese women might be tired of traditional male-female relationships in fiction, or that BL offers a safe way to explore same-sex fantasies. Some readers see male characters in BL as representations of girls, making the stories a way to express same-sex desires.
Other experts have pointed out that BL may address deeper issues about gender and sexuality. Some have compared BL to lesbian-themed pornography and called it a form of "female fetishism." Early theories about BL focused on how it helped women in Japan resist traditional gender roles, but later ideas argued that BL became popular in other countries, like the West, under different social conditions. Some believe BL is similar to pornography, as it appeals to desires for eroticism or challenges traditional gender roles. A science fiction writer named Mariko Ōhara said she enjoyed BL stories as a teenager because they offered freedom similar to science fiction, which she found more appealing than traditional pornography.
In 1998, Shihomi Sakakibara, who is a BL fan, said that some fans, including himself, are gay transgender men. Some critics believe BL stories explore the possibility of different gender identities. James Welker described the male characters in BL as "queer" and noted that a manga critic, Akiko Mizoguchi, saw BL as helping her become a lesbian. Dru Pagliassotti said that for some Japanese gay and lesbian readers, BL is more realistic than heterosexual readers claim. Welker also wrote that BL helps female readers escape not only traditional gender roles but also the idea that only two genders exist.
Some gay and lesbian critics have criticized how BL portrays gay identity, especially during the "yaoi debate" between 1992 and 1997. One common issue is that some BL stories feature male characters who are not explicitly gay but are in love with each other. This has been criticized as avoiding the reality of homophobia. Another issue is the portrayal of the "uke" character, who is often shown as very feminine, which some see as stereotyping.
Similar criticisms have been made by English-speaking fans. Rachel Thorn said that some BL and slash fiction fans are unhappy with the expectations placed on them to follow traditional ideas of femininity and the lack of support for their feelings.
BL has caused legal and moral debates. Mark McLelland suggested that BL could become a topic of conflict over policies that promote gender equality. In Japan, some parents do not encourage children to read BL. In Thailand, selling unauthorized BL stories to teenagers in 2001 caused public concern. In 2006, an email campaign in Japan led to a debate about whether removing BL from libraries was a form of discrimination. In 2010, Osaka banned BL manga for being harmful to minors, leading to restrictions on selling BL to under-18s.
In China, under the leadership of Xi Jinping, authors of danmei (a type of BL fiction) have faced legal action. In 2014, at least 20 female authors were arrested for writing danmei online. In 2018, a BL author named Tianyi was sentenced to prison for creating "obscene material." In 2021, a BL-inspired TV show was banned. In 2022, new rules led to the cancellation of planned BL dramas.
Zanghellini noted that BL stories often feature underage characters in romantic or sexual situations, which could lead to legal issues in countries with strict child pornography laws. In the UK, cartoons are not considered child pornography unless they are used to groom children.