Joséphine Bonaparte (French: [ʒozefin bɔnapaʁt]), born Marie Josèphe Rose Tascher de La Pagerie, was born on June 23, 1763, and died on May 29, 1814. She was the first wife of Emperor Napoleon I and served as Empress of the French from May 18, 1804, until her marriage was ended on January 10, 1810. She was also Queen of Italy from May 26, 1805, until the same date her marriage was ended. She is most commonly known as Joséphine de Beauharnais (French: [ʒozefin də boaʁnɛ]) or Empress Joséphine.

Joséphine’s marriage to Napoleon was her second. Her first husband, Alexandre de Beauharnais, was executed during the Reign of Terror, and she was imprisoned in the Carmes prison for five days after his death. Through her children with Beauharnais, she became the grandmother of Emperor Napoleon III of France and Empress Amélie of Brazil. Members of the royal families of Sweden, Denmark, Belgium, and Norway, as well as the grand ducal family of Luxembourg, are descendants of Joséphine. Napoleon ended their marriage because they had no children and later married Marie Louise of Austria. Joséphine received many love letters from Napoleon, many of which are still preserved today.

Joséphine supported artists and worked with sculptors, painters, and interior decorators to create a unique Consular and empire style at the Château de Malmaison. She was one of the most important art collectors of her time, collecting sculptures and paintings. The Château de Malmaison was famous for its rose garden, which she carefully oversaw.

Name

Although she is often called "Joséphine de Beauharnais," this was not the name she used herself. "Beauharnais" was the name of her first husband, which she stopped using after marrying Napoleon. She then took the last name "Bonaparte." Her full first names were Marie-Josèphe-Rose. Before meeting Napoleon, she was known as Rose or Marie-Rose Tascher de la Pagerie, later de Beauharnais. She sometimes used her maiden name again later in life. After marrying General Bonaparte, she became known as Joséphine Bonaparte. The name "Joséphine de Beauharnais" was incorrectly used during the time the Bourbons returned to power, as they avoided using Napoleon's surname or her imperial title.

Family background

The Tascher family was an old French noble family who owned land. Joséphine's grandfather, Gaspard-Joseph Tascher de La Pagerie (1705–1767), was the first family member to move to Le Carbet on Martinique in 1726. He lived in poverty there but helped his son, Joseph-Gaspard Tascher de La Pagerie (5 July 1735 – 7 November 1790), get a job as a young servant in the household of Maria Josepha of Saxony, the Dauphine of France.

After spending three years in France from 1752, Joseph-Gaspard returned to Martinique and married Marie Rose-Claire des Vergers de Sannois (27 August 1736 – 1 June 1807) on 9 November 1761. Marie Rose-Claire's maternal grandfather, Anthony Brown, may have been Irish. She came from one of the oldest European families on the island. The Tascher family home near Les Trois-Îlets, a sugar plantation that is now a museum, was part of Marie Rose-Claire's family gift.

On Martinique, Joseph-Gaspard worked as a plantation owner and a lieutenant in the naval forces, in addition to a small pension from his earlier work in the royal household. He often faced financial difficulties and had poor health throughout his life.

Disputed birthplace

Marie-Josèphe-Rose Tascher de La Pagerie was born in Paix Bouche, Babonneau, Saint Lucia on 23 June 1763. A church record in Les Trois-Îlets, Martinique shows that Joséphine was baptised there by Emmanuel Capuchin, but the record does not mention she was born there.

Joséphine’s father owned an estate in Soufrière District on Saint Lucia called Malmaison, which later became the name of her famous French home. In 1802, Dom Daviot, a priest in Gros Islet on Saint Lucia, wrote a letter to a friend, stating that “it is in the vicinity of [my] parish that the wife of the first consul was born.” He said he knew Joséphine’s cousin, who lived in his parish.

In Henry H. Breen’s 1844 book The History of St. Lucia, he wrote that he spoke with “several well-informed persons” who believed Empress Joséphine was born on Saint Lucia. Breen included evidence, such as a newspaper clipping from 1831 that said it was “alleged” the de Tascher family were among Saint Lucia’s first settlers. The article claimed Joséphine was born on a small estate on a hill called La Cauzette, later named Morne Paix Bouche. It also said the family lived there until 1771, when Joséphine’s father moved to serve as intendant of Martinique. Some people claimed they knew Joséphine as a child, and one said he was “graciously received” by her later in life at Château de Malmaison near Paris. Breen also got information from Joséphine’s enslaved nanny, Dede, who said she cared for Joséphine at La Cauzette.

Those who believe Joséphine was born on Saint Lucia say the de Tascher estate in Martinique was only a temporary home for visits with her mother-in-law. Saint Lucia changed ownership between Great Britain and France fourteen times, and there were no civil records on the island when Joséphine was born. The frequent changes in ownership may explain why her birthplace was not recorded, as it could have affected her nationality.

Regardless of where she was born, Joséphine was her parents’ first child. They had two more children: Catherine-Désirée in 1764 and Marie-Françoise in 1766. At ages ten and nine, Joséphine and Catherine-Désirée attended a boarding school in Fort-Royal, run by the Bénédictines de la Providence. There, they learned to read, write, sing, dance, and embroider for four years. After Catherine-Désirée’s death, Joséphine returned to her parents’ plantation. Joséphine’s nurse was an enslaved person named Marion, whose freedom she secured in 1807.

First marriage

Joséphine's paternal aunt, Marie Euphémie Désirée Tascher de la Pagerie (1739–1803), was first the mistress of a French naval officer, François de Beauharnais, who later became his second wife. François came from a noble family that was not as old as the Tascher family but had more wealth. While living in Martinique, François and his first wife, Marie Anne Henriette Françoise Pyvart de Chastullé (1722–1766), had a son named Alexandre. After returning to France, the family left Alexandre with the Tascher family until 1766. When Alexandre came of age, his father's mistress, who was also Alexandre's godmother, decided it would be beneficial for her if Alexandre married one of her nieces. At seventeen, Alexandre thought Joséphine, who was fifteen, was too close in age to him, so he married Catherine-Désirée Tascher de la Pagerie (1764–1777), the youngest of his aunt's daughters. Catherine-Désirée died in 1777 before the marriage could take place. Her father then offered his other daughter, Marie-Françoise, but she was too young, and her mother and grandmother refused to let her go. Eventually, Joséphine was chosen as Alexandre's bride.

In October 1779, Joséphine traveled to France with her father. She married Alexandre on 13 December 1779 in Noisy-le-Grand. They had two children: a son, Eugène de Beauharnais, and a daughter, Hortense de Beauharnais, who later married Napoleon's brother, Louis Bonaparte, in 1802. Alexandre officially became the legal father of Hortense, but when Joséphine told him about her birth, he wrote that he was certain the child was the result of an affair. Joséphine and Alexandre's marriage was unhappy. Alexandre left his family for over a year to live with a mistress and visited brothels, leading to a court-ordered separation. During this time, Joséphine and the children lived at Alexandre's expense in the Pentemont Abbey.

On 2 March 1794, during the Reign of Terror, the Committee of Public Safety ordered the arrest of Joséphine's husband. He was imprisoned in the Carmes Prison in Paris. Joséphine was also arrested on 18 April 1794 because the Committee believed she was too close to counter-revolutionary financial groups. A warrant for her arrest was issued on 21 April 1794, and she was imprisoned in the Carmes Prison until 28 July. During this time, Joséphine could only communicate with her children by writing messages on laundry lists, which the jailers later stopped allowing.

Joséphine's husband was accused of failing to defend Mainz in July 1793 and was considered an aristocratic suspect. He was sentenced to death and executed on 23 July 1794 on the Place de la Révolution (later known as Place de la Concorde) in Paris, along with his cousin Augustin. Joséphine was released five days later after the fall of Maximilien Robespierre, which ended the Reign of Terror. On 27 July 1794, Tallien arranged Joséphine's release. In June 1795, a new law allowed Joséphine to reclaim the possessions that had belonged to Alexandre.

Marriage to Napoleon

Madame de Beauharnais had romantic relationships with several important political leaders, including Paul Barras. In 1795, she met Napoleon Bonaparte, who was six years younger than her, and they became lovers. In a letter to her in December, Napoleon wrote, "I wake up thinking about you. Your image and the memory of our exciting time together have made it hard for me to rest." In January 1796, Napoleon proposed to her, and they married on March 9. On the marriage certificate, Joséphine lowered her age by four years and increased Napoleon's age by eighteen months, making them appear to be about the same age. Before meeting Napoleon, she was known as Rose, but he preferred to call her Joséphine, the name she used from then on.

Napoleon's family did not approve of the marriage, as they were surprised that he had married an older woman who already had two children. His mother and sisters were especially upset with Joséphine, as they felt she made them feel clumsy and not as refined.

Joséphine remained in Paris in 1796 and began a romantic relationship with a military officer named Hippolyte Charles. When Napoleon learned about this, he became very angry, and his feelings for her changed completely.

Napoleon often wrote loving letters to Joséphine from Italy, asking her to join him in Milan after he captured the city on May 10, 1796. After much pressure, Joséphine agreed to travel to Italy and arrived in Milan on July 10, 1796. Hippolyte Charles was part of her group during this time. She stayed in Italy for eighteen months, living mainly in Milan and later at a nearby castle called Château de Mombello, where Napoleon's family joined her.

Two days after their wedding, Napoleon left Paris to lead the Army of Italy. During their time apart, he sent her many letters filled with love. In February 1797, he wrote, "You, who nature has given spirit, sweetness, and beauty, you who alone can move and rule my heart, you who know all too well the power you have over it!"

In 1798, Napoleon led a French army to Egypt. During this time, he began a romantic relationship with Pauline Fourès, the wife of a junior officer, who became known as "Napoleon's Cleopatra." After this, the relationship between Joséphine and Napoleon never returned to how it was before.

In December 1800, Joséphine was nearly killed in the Plot of the rue Saint-Nicaise, an attempt on Napoleon's life using a bomb hidden in a parked cart. On December 24, she and Napoleon attended a performance of Joseph Haydn's Creation at the Opéra, accompanied by friends and family. They traveled in two carriages. Joséphine was in the second carriage with her daughter, Hortense; her pregnant sister-in-law, Caroline Murat; and General Jean Rapp. She delayed the group while adjusting a new silk shawl, and Napoleon went ahead in the first carriage. The bomb exploded as her carriage passed, killing several bystanders and a horse, and damaging the carriage windows. Hortense was injured by flying glass, but no one else was hurt, and the group continued to the Opéra.

Napoleon was elected Emperor of the French in 1804, making Joséphine Empress. The coronation ceremony, led by Pope Pius VII, took place at Notre-Dame de Paris on December 2. Napoleon first crowned himself, then placed the crown on Joséphine's head, declaring her Empress. This action showed his belief that the clergy should not hold power in Europe.

As Empress, Joséphine had a court appointed to her and restored positions that existed before the French Revolution. These included Adélaïde de La Rochefoucauld as Première dame d'honneur, Émilie de Beauharnais as Dame d'atour, and the wives of Napoleon's officials and generals, such as Jeanne Charlotte du Lucay, Madame de Rémusat, Elisabeth Baude de Talhouët, Lauriston, d'Arberg, Marie Antoinette Duchâtel, Sophie de Segur, Séran, Colbert, Savary, and Aglaé Louise Auguié Ney, who served as Dame de Palais.

Before their coronation, an incident at the Château de Saint-Cloud nearly ended their marriage. Joséphine discovered Napoleon in the bedroom of her lady-in-waiting, Élisabeth de Vaudey, and Napoleon threatened to divorce her because she had not given him a child, as his family had pressured him to do. However, through the efforts of their daughter, Hortense, they were reconciled.

After several years, it became clear that Joséphine could not have children. Although Napoleon still loved her, he began considering an annulment. The final decision came when Napoleon's nephew (and Joséphine's grandson), Napoléon-Charles Bonaparte, died of croup in 1807. Again pressured by his family, Napoleon created lists of eligible princesses. At a dinner on November 30, 1809, he told Joséphine that, for the good of France, he needed to find a wife who could have children. He expressed that he wished this were not necessary. Joséphine agreed to the divorce so Napoleon could remarry in hopes of having an heir. The divorce ceremony took place on January 10, 1810, and was a grand but solemn event. Both read statements expressing their devotion to each other. Napoleon honored the occasion by commissioning the Sèvres Egyptian Service as a gift for Joséphine.

On March 11, Napoleon married Marie-Louise of Austria by proxy, with a formal ceremony at the Louvre in April. Napoleon once said that despite Marie-Louise's quick affection for him, "It is a womb that I am marrying." Even after their separation, Joséphine kept the title and rank of Empress.

Later life and death

After the end of her marriage to Napoleon, Joséphine lived at the Château de Malmaison, near Paris. She stayed in friendly contact with Napoleon, who gave her a large yearly amount of money. Napoleon once said that the only problem between them was her debts. Joséphine said privately, "The only thing that ever came between us was my debts; certainly not his manhood." In April 1810, Napoleon gave her the title of Duchess of Navarre through official documents. Some people say Napoleon and Joséphine were still secretly in love, though there is no proof of this.

In March 1811, Marie Louise gave birth to a much-awaited son, Napoleon II, who was given the title "King of Rome" by Napoleon. Two years later, Napoleon arranged for Joséphine to meet the young prince, who had caused her many tears.

Joséphine died of pneumonia in Rueil-Malmaison on 29 May 1814, shortly after walking with Emperor Alexander I of Russia in the gardens of Malmaison. It is said that she asked to join Napoleon in exile. She was buried in the nearby church of Saint Pierre-Saint Paul in Rueil. Her daughter, Hortense, is buried near her.

Napoleon learned of her death from a French newspaper while in exile on Elba, and he locked himself in his room for two days, refusing to see anyone. Later, while in exile on Saint Helena, he told a friend, "I truly loved my Joséphine, but I did not respect her." Despite having many relationships, ending his marriage, and marrying again, Napoleon’s final words on his deathbed at Saint Helena were: "France, the Army, the Head of the Army, Joséphine." ("France, l'armée, tête d'armée, Joséphine.")

Descendants

Hortense's son, Napoleon III, became Emperor of the French. Eugène's son, Maximilian de Beauharnais, 3rd Duke of Leuchtenberg, married into the Russian Imperial family. He was granted the title of Imperial Highness and started the Russian branch of the Beauharnais family. Eugène's daughter, Joséphine, married King Oscar I of Sweden, who was the son of Napoleon's former fiancée, Désirée Clary. Because of this, Joséphine is a direct ancestor of the current leaders of the royal families of Belgium, Denmark, Luxembourg, Norway, Sweden, and the grandducal house of Baden.

Some jewels worn by modern royals are believed to have been worn by Joséphine. The Norwegian royal family owns an emerald and diamond jewelry set, called a parure, that once belonged to Joséphine. The briolette diamonds, inherited by her son Eugène, were passed to his son Maximilian through his marriage to the Romanov family. These diamonds were used to create the Empress Joséphine Tiara by Fabérge's goldsmith August Holmström in the late 1880s. The Swedish royal family owns several jewelry pieces linked to Joséphine, including the Leuchtenberg Sapphire Parure, a set of amethyst jewels given as a wedding gift to her daughter-in-law, Augusta Amalia, and the Cameo Parure, which was worn by Sweden's royal brides.

Another daughter of Eugène, Amélie of Leuchtenberg, married Emperor Pedro I of Brazil in Rio de Janeiro and became Empress of Brazil. They had one surviving daughter, Princess Maria Amélia of Brazil. She was briefly engaged to Archduke Maximilian of Austria before he became Maximilian I of Mexico. She died young before the engagement could continue.

Personality and appearance

Her biographer, Carolly Erickson, wrote, "In choosing her lovers, Joséphine followed her head first, then her heart," meaning she was skilled at finding men who could meet her financial and social needs. She recognized Napoleon's ability to help her. Joséphine was known for spending large amounts of money, and Barras might have wanted to end his relationship with her by helping her connect with General Bonaparte. Joséphine was naturally kind, generous, and charming, and she was admired for being a welcoming hostess.

Joséphine was described as being of average height, slim, and curvy, with long, silky chestnut-brown hair, hazel eyes, and a pale complexion. Her nose was small and straight, and her mouth was well-shaped. However, she often kept her mouth closed to hide her poor teeth. She was praised for her elegance, style, and soft, "silvery" voice that was beautifully clear.

Patroness of roses

In 1799, while Napoleon was in Egypt, Joséphine bought the Château de Malmaison. She hired British landscapers and plant experts to design the gardens in an English style. These experts included Thomas Blaikie, a Scottish horticulturist; Alexander Howatson, another Scottish gardener; Ventenat, a botanist; and André Dupont, a horticulturist. Soon after buying the château, Joséphine started building a rose garden, inspired by Dupont’s love for roses. She personally cared for the gardens and learned about plants and gardening from her staff. Joséphine wanted to collect all known types of roses, so Napoleon ordered his naval commanders to search captured ships for plants to send to Malmaison. Pierre-Joseph Redouté was asked to paint the flowers from her gardens. Les Roses, a book with 168 painted rose images, was published between 1817 and 1820. About 75–80 of the roses shown in the book grew at Malmaison.

An English nursery called Lee and Kennedy supplied plants to Joséphine, even though Britain and France were at war. In 1810, arrangements were made between the British and French navies to allow shipments of plants, such as Hume’s Blush Tea-Scented China, to reach Malmaison. Sir Joseph Banks, who led the Royal Botanic Gardens in Kew, also sent her roses.

It is believed Joséphine had about 250 roses in her garden when she died in 1814. Her roses were not officially recorded during her lifetime. Some estimates suggest there were about 197 rose varieties in 1814, based on calculations by Jules Gravereaux of Roseraie de l’Haye. These included 12 species, about 40 centifolias, mosses, and damasks, 20 Bengals, and about 100 gallicas. The botanist Claude Antoine Thory, who described the roses in Les Roses, noted that Joséphine’s Bengal rose, R. indica, had black spots. She wrote the first known history of rose cultivation and is believed to have hosted the first rose exhibition in 1810.

Modern rose breeding using controlled pollination began with Joséphine’s horticulturist, André Dupont. Before this, most new rose varieties appeared by chance or through bee activity. Dupont created 25 new rose types while working for Joséphine. After her death, French hybridizers developed over 1,000 new rose varieties in 30 years. By 1910, about 8,000 rose types were grown in Gravereaux’s garden.

Jacques-Louis Descemet dedicated his painting Impératrice Joséphine to her before 1815. Jean-Pierre Vibert created a painting titled Joséphine Beauharnais in her honor in 1823. The rose variety Souvenir de la Malmaison was introduced in 1844, 30 years after Joséphine’s death, named in her honor by a Russian Grand Duke who planted one of the first specimens in St. Petersburg.

After Joséphine’s death, the house and garden were sometimes empty and later damaged during a battle in 1870.

Art patronage

Empress Joséphine had a strong interest in art and horticulture. She surrounded herself with artists and creators whose work included paintings, sculptures, furniture, and architecture. Her love for art grew after she married her first husband, who held a high position in society. This allowed her to visit homes of influential people and learn about their art collections. After marrying Napoleon and becoming Empress, she was surrounded by art from her time but also admired works by older artists. She supported artists who used styles that were not common, seeking those who challenged traditional ideas. She visited the Salon to connect with contemporary artists and became a patron to many, helping them develop their careers. After buying the Château de Malmaison, she used the space to display her art and style, creating salons, galleries, a theater, and her famous garden. The Malmaison and Tuileries Palace became important centers for government and the arts. Joséphine’s court became the leading art center in Europe. She was the first French royal woman of her scale to collect art, influencing the Consular and Empire styles.

Joséphine worked with many artists throughout her life. She collected paintings and was painted by artists like Jacques-Louis David and François Gérard. However, she favored Antoine-Jean Gros, commissioning him more often. Gros learned of Joséphine’s visit to Genoa and sought an introduction, knowing her support could help his career. After meeting her and seeing his work, Joséphine invited Gros to live in her residences. She commissioned him to paint a portrait of her husband, General Bonaparte. The painting, Bonaparte at the Pont d'Arcole, became important in Napoleon’s propaganda. Gros later painted other portraits of Napoleon, showing him as a strong and powerful leader. Joséphine’s support helped Gros spread the government’s message about Napoleon’s rule.

Over her lifetime, Joséphine commissioned four major works from the Italian Neoclassical sculptor Antonio Canova. She received a copy of Canova’s sculpture Cupid and Psyche, originally promised to Colonel John Campbell but later given to her. She then asked Canova to create Dancer with Hands on Hips, completed in 1812. She allowed Canova to work freely, resulting in a sculpture with a classical style but a relaxed, joyful appearance. Canova also created Paris, finished in 1812 and delivered to Malmaison in 1813, and The Three Graces, completed after Joséphine’s death in 1816. All four works were later sold to Tsar Alexander of Russia.

Architects Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine became Joséphine and Napoleon’s decorators. Many of Joséphine’s famous furnishings were made especially for her by Percier and Fontaine. They designed spaces in the empire’s residences to make the Empress feel comfortable. Their style included cheval glass and a soft, feminine look for the Empress’s boudoir. These designs were unique for their time and admired for their creativity. Percier and Fontaine are closely linked to the Empire style of the period.

In popular culture

In 1859, French Emperor Napoleon III ordered the creation of a statue of Joséphine, which was placed in La Savane Park in downtown Fort-de-France. In 1991, the statue was symbolically had its head removed and covered in red paint. These acts of damage were done because people believed Joséphine had influenced her husband to pass the Law of 20 May 1802, which brought back slavery in the French colonial empire, including Martinique. The city did not repair the statue, and each year more red paint was added to it. In July 2020, the statue was removed and destroyed by people protesting during the George Floyd demonstrations.

• Conan Doyle, Sir Arthur (1897). Uncle Bernac.
• Fields, Bertram (2015). Destiny: A Novel Of Napoleon & Josephine.
• Gulland, Sandra (1995). The Many Lives & Secret Sorrows of Josephine B.
• ——— (1998). Tales of Passion, Tales of Woe.
• ——— (2000). The Last Great Dance on Earth.
• Kenyon, F. W. (1952). The Emperor's Lady.
• Mossiker, Frances (1965). Napoleon and Josephine.
• ——— (1971). More Than a Queen: The Story of Josephine Bonaparte.
• Pataki, Allison (2020). The Queen's Fortune: Desiree, Napoleon, and the Dynasty That Outlasted the Empire.
• Selinko, Annemarie (1958). Désirée.
• Webb, Heather (2013). Becoming Josephine.
• Winterson, Jeanette (1987). The Passion.
• Parkyn, Stephanie (2019). Josephine's Garden.

• Napoleon and Love (1974), a British television series where Napoleon is played by Ian Holm and Joséphine by Billie Whitelaw.
• Napoléon and Josephine: A Love Story (miniseries) (1987), where Napoleon is played by Armand Assante and Joséphine by Jacqueline Bisset.
• Napoléon (2002), a historical TV miniseries about Napoleon's life, where Joséphine is played by Isabella Rossellini.
• In 2015 and 2017, an episode of Horrible Histories titled "Naughty Napoleon" and "Ridiculous Romantics" featured Natalie Walter and Gemma Whelan as Joséphine de Beauharnais.

In Ridley Scott's 2023 film Napoleon, Joséphine is played by English actress Vanessa Kirby.

• Kaiserin Josephine, an operetta with music by Emmerich Kálmán, first performed in Zürich on 18 January 1936.
• The song "Josephine" from The Magnetic Fields' 1991 album Distant Plastic Trees: "If I were Napoleon, you could be my Josephine…"
• The song "Josephine" from Frank Turner's 2015 album Positive Songs for Negative People references Joséphine and Josephine Brunsvik to describe Turner's desire for a muse to inspire him.
• The song "Impressed" from Charlie Sexton's 1985 album Pictures for Pleasure mentions Napoleon and Joséphine in the opening lines.
• The song "Josephine" from Tori Amos's 1999 partially live album To Venus and Back references the phrase "Not tonight, Joséphine," supposedly said by Napoleon, and his military career.
• The song "Paint me, Redouté" from June Tabor's 2001 album Rosa Mundi, where Joséphine tells her life story to Redouté and speaks about her love for roses.

• John Galliano said his inspiration came from dressing the pregnant rock star Madonna and then thinking of Empress Josephine.