Courtly love, known as fin'amor in Occitan and amour courtois in French, was a medieval European idea about love that focused on nobility and honor. Medieval stories often showed knights going on adventures or doing tasks for ladies because of their "courtly love." This type of love began as a fictional idea in stories meant to entertain nobles. Over time, the idea spread to more people and became popular among those who could read. During the High Middle Ages, a "game of love" formed around these ideas, becoming part of social customs. Loving nobly was seen as a way to grow and improve oneself.

Courtly love started in the courts of dukes and princes in areas like Aquitaine, Provence, Champagne, Burgundy, and the Norman Kingdom of Sicily by the end of the 11th century. At its core, courtly love was a mix of strong desire and spiritual growth, described as a love that was both forbidden and morally uplifting, passionate yet controlled, humbling yet uplifting, and both human and beyond the ordinary. This theme was common in the works of musicians and poets, including troubadours, trouvères, and Minnesänger. It was also widely used by important writers such as Dante, Petrarch, and Geoffrey Chaucer.

Origin of term

The term "courtly love" is found in only one known source: the Provençal phrase "cortez amors" in a late 12th-century poem by Peire d'Alvernhe. It is connected to the Provençal word "fin'amor" ("fine love"), which appears often in poetry, as well as its German version "hohe Minne." Provençal also uses terms like "verai'amors" and "bon'amors."

The modern use of "courtly love" began with Gaston Paris in 1883. He used the phrase "amour courtois" ("courtly love") in an article about the relationship between Lancelot and Guinevere in the 12th-century story Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart by Chrétien de Troyes. Paris described four main features of "amour courtois":

• The love is secret and not allowed (adulterous).
• The man is in a lower position than the woman.
• The man performs tasks or challenges to prove his love for the woman.
• The love follows rules, similar to chivalry or polite behavior.

Paris used the term to describe a concept, not as a strict definition, and sometimes used it interchangeably with "amour chevaleresque." Later scholars began using "courtly love" as a technical term.

In 1896, Lewis Freeman Mott used the term to describe Dante Alighieri's feelings for Beatrice in La Vita Nuova (1294). These two relationships differ: Lancelot and Guinevere were secret lovers, while Dante and Beatrice never had a romantic relationship and met only twice. However, both men described their devotion to their women in a similar, almost religious way.

In 1936, C. S. Lewis wrote a book called The Allegory of Love, which helped popularize the term. He described "courtly love" as a type of love with traits like humility, courtesy, adultery, and a religious devotion to love.

In 1964, Moshe Lazar divided "courtly love" into three categories. Scholars continue to debate whether "courtly love" is a clear and consistent idea.

D. W. Robertson Jr. said the term is too vague to define clearly. John C. Moore called it a confusing term that should be avoided. Roger Boase admitted the term has been used in many different ways, but still believed the concept of courtly love is real and useful.

E. Talbot Donaldson criticized using "courtly love" as a technical term, calling it outdated or a new term not used in the past.

Richard Trachsler argued that "courtly literature" is tied to texts written and read by people who shared a similar culture. He noted that some texts labeled as "courtly" also include "uncourtly" elements, making it hard to separate the two. This creates confusion in understanding what "courtly" truly means.

Irving Singer said the original definition of "courtly love" by Paris and Lewis is misleading. He suggested redefining the term to better reflect the many different views of love in the Middle Ages.

Singer summarized a revised idea of "courtly love" as a group of related ideas that often appear together but are not always present in every text from the time.

History

The practice of courtly love began in the castle life of four regions: Aquitaine, Provence, Champagne, and ducal Burgundy, around the time of the First Crusade (1099). Eleanor of Aquitaine (1124–1204) introduced the ideals of courtly love from Aquitaine to the court of France and later to England. She became queen-consort in both places. Her daughter, Marie, Countess of Champagne (1145–1198), helped spread courtly behavior to the court of the Count of Champagne. Courtly love was shown in the lyric poems written by troubadours, such as William IX, Duke of Aquitaine (1071–1126), who was one of the first troubadour poets.

Poets used terms from feudalism, calling themselves the vassal of a lady. The ideal lady for troubadours was often the wife of their employer or lord, a woman of high status who usually led the castle and its cultural activities. When her husband was away on a Crusade or elsewhere, she managed the household. Even when her husband was present, she often held significant influence. Poets expressed the hopes of the noble class, as only nobles could participate in courtly love. This type of love valued character and actions, such as devotion and kindness, rather than wealth or family background. This idea gave poorer knights a chance to gain respect and status.

By the late 12th century, Andreas Capellanus wrote a highly influential book called De amore, which set the rules for courtly love. Some of these rules included:
• "Marriage is not a reason to avoid loving."
• "Someone who is not jealous cannot truly love."
• "A person cannot be in love with two people at the same time."
• "Love that becomes public rarely lasts long."

Many of these ideas and styles came from the Roman poet Ovid’s work Ars amatoria.

One theory suggests that courtly love in Southern France was influenced by Arabic poetry from Al-Andalus.

In Andalusian writing, Ṭawq al-Ḥamāmah (The Ring of the Dove) by Ibn Hazm is a book about love that focuses on restraint and purity. Tarjumān al-Ashwāq (The Translator of Desires) by Ibn Arabi is a collection of love poems. Other works from around the same time include Kitab al-Zahra (Book of the Flower) by Ibn Dawud and Risala fi'l-Ishq (Treatise of Love) by Ibn Sina. Both Ibn Arabi and Ibn Sina combined ideas about physical love with spiritual love.

According to Gustave E. von Grunebaum, the ideas of loving for love’s sake and honoring a beloved lady can be found in Arabic literature from the 9th and 10th centuries. The idea that love can make people noble is clearly discussed in Risala fi'l-Ishq.

María Rosa Menocal, in her book The Arabic Role in Medieval Literary History (1987), explains that in 11th-century Spain, groups of traveling poets moved between courts and sometimes visited Christian courts in southern France. This situation was similar to what happened in southern France about a century later. These Spanish poets often interacted with French troubadours. The poetic forms used by Spanish poets were similar to those later used by troubadours.

Analysis

Historians have different opinions about the meaning of courtly love during the Middle Ages. Some believe that courtly love was a response to the strict and male-dominated religious system of the time. These historians think that courtly love praised women's qualities as noble, spiritual, and moral, which was different from the strict views held by the Church's leaders. They also note that when the Church called courtly love heretical in the early 13th century, it was seen as an effort to stop this "sexual rebellion."

Other historians argue that courtly love was connected to the Church's work to improve the rough and harsh rules of Germanic feudal society in the late 11th century. They also suggest that because many marriages were arranged, people needed other ways to express personal feelings of love. For this reason, courtly love may have developed not because of the Church's strictness, but because of the marriage customs of the time. In Germanic culture, a special form of courtly love called Minne existed.

Sometimes, the woman in courtly love stories was a princesse lointaine, a faraway princess, and some stories described men who fell in love with women they had never met, only after hearing about their beauty. However, this was not always the case. As the rules of courtly love became more complex, knights might wear colors that represented their lady’s feelings. For example, blue or black could show loyalty, while green might suggest unfaithfulness. In courtly love, salvation, which was once the role of the Church, was now believed to come from the lady a knight loved. In some cases, women known as troubadours also expressed love for men in the same way.

Literary convention

The text describes the beauty and importance of a person, comparing them to nature and the sun. It states that no other creature is as beautiful or brings as much joy. Love is shown as a powerful force that can calm fears. The text also mentions that those who admire this person should honor them greatly, as they are considered the most excellent among women.

Courtly love was a common theme in the works of many medieval writers, including Geoffrey Chaucer, John Gower, Dante, Marie de France, Chretien de Troyes, Gottfried von Strassburg, and Thomas Malory. This theme appeared in genres such as lyric poetry, romance, and allegory.

Courtly love began in lyric poetry, first developed by Provençal poets in the 11th century. These poets included traveling musicians called troubadours and trouvères, as well as writers of short poems called lays. Troubadours often set these poems to music. Scholar Ardis Butterfield said courtly love was "the air which many genres of troubadour song breathe." While details about performances are unclear, it is believed that these songs were performed at courts by troubadours, trouvères, or courtiers themselves. Courtiers were expected to be skilled in many areas, including music.

Scholars struggle to determine how or when these songs were performed because much of the information comes from the music itself. One lay, "Lay of Lecheor," mentions that songs were shared widely by skilled musicians who played instruments like the viol, harp, and rote. However, it is unclear whether these descriptions are true or fictional.

Few examples of how these songs were performed remain. One example shows a servant playing music for a king or lord and a small group of people. Whether a song was accompanied by instruments depended on what was available in a courtly setting. Troubadours and minstrels often used a fiddle (called a vielle) or a harp. Court musicians also played the vielle, harp, and other instruments like viols and flutes.

This tradition spread to German Minnesänger, such as Walther von der Vogelweide and Wolfram von Eschenbach, and to troubadours in the Iberian Peninsula. It also influenced the Sicilian School of Italian poetry and writers like Petrarch and Dante.

Courtly love appeared in many medieval romances, including stories about King Arthur’s court. These works were often written in a language that was easy for people to understand and were directed to a mostly female audience.

Allegory, or using symbols to represent ideas, was common in medieval romantic literature. Religious and human love were often connected in these writings. The tradition of allegory began with the interpretation of the Bible’s "Song of Songs." Some medieval writers believed the book was about love between God and the church, while others saw it as a literal description of romantic love.

In Marie de France’s "Eliduc," two people who deeply love each other leave one another to pursue religious lives. In "Roman de la Rose," a man falls in love with a rose on a bush, which symbolizes a woman. The story also includes discussions about free will, optics, and the influence of the stars on human behavior.

In troubadour poetry, the term "midons" was used to address a lady. This word comes from the Latin phrase "mihi dominus," meaning "my lord." Troubadours used this term to flatter their lady and to use a code word that was open to interpretation.

These multiple meanings allowed troubadours to use images of women to gain social status among other men. At the same time, they expressed deeper desires for their audience. This blending of social and sexual themes challenged the rigid feudal hierarchy of the time.

Themes of courtly love continued beyond the medieval period, appearing in both serious and humorous forms in early modern Europe. For example, Shakespeare’s "Romeo and Juliet" shows Romeo trying to love Rosaline in a courtly way, while Mercutio mocks him.

In Paul Gallico’s 1939 novel, "The Adventures of Hiram Holliday," a modern man tries to live like an ideal medieval knight. He saves a Habsburg princess from Nazis, follows the rules of courtly love, and wins her after a duel with her betrothed.

Points of controversy

A topic that continues to be debated among scholars is whether courtly love involved sexual feelings. All forms of courtly love included some level of romantic or physical attraction, not just emotional admiration. Troubadours, who were medieval poets, often described the physical beauty of their loved ones and the emotions they inspired. However, it is unclear whether poets were meant to remain in a state of longing while pursuing higher goals or whether they were expected to act on their desires. Scholars have offered different interpretations of this.

Denis de Rougemont argued that troubadours were influenced by Cathar religious beliefs, which discouraged physical pleasures. He suggested that their poetry focused on the spiritual or emotional connection to their loved ones. He also noted that courtly love was tied to the code of chivalry, which required knights to prioritize loyalty to their king over their romantic interests. Edmund Reiss believed courtly love was similar to Christian love, or "caritas," which emphasizes selflessness. In contrast, Mosché Lazar argued that courtly love often involved romantic relationships that included physical intimacy, with the goal of being with the loved one.

Many scholars refer to courtly love as the "pure love" described by Capellanus in his 1184 work De amore. However, medieval texts, such as troubadour poems called albas and stories like Lancelot by Chrétien de Troyes, frequently mention beds and sleeping together, suggesting that in some cases, actual physical relationships were implied.

Troubadour poetry shows a wide variety of attitudes, even within the works of a single poet. Some poems describe physical sensations and romantic scenes, while others focus on spiritual or emotional love, similar to non-romantic relationships.

Another debate is whether courtly love was only a literary concept or if it was practiced in real life. There are no historical records that prove it existed outside of writings. Historian John F. Benton found no evidence of courtly love in legal documents, court cases, or other historical sources. However, the existence of "courtesy books," which were non-fiction guides on proper behavior, may suggest that the ideals of courtly love were used in real life. For example, Christine de Pizan’s Book of the Three Virtues (c. 1405) criticized courtly love, claiming it was used to hide secret relationships. In 1454, Philip le Bon used stories about courtly love to encourage nobles to join a crusade, showing that its ideas influenced real-world events for many years.

The existence of "courts of love," first mentioned by Andreas Capellanus, is another point of debate. These were supposedly groups of women who acted as judges in love-related disputes. In the 19th century, some historians believed these courts were real. However, later historians, including Benton, found no evidence of their existence outside of poetry. Feminist historian Emily James Putnam argued that since courtly love was meant to be secret, it could not have been discussed openly in courts. Diane Bornstein suggested that references to "courts of love" in literature might describe social gatherings where people shared poems, discussed love, and played games related to romance.

At the time, religious leaders emphasized love as a spiritual, not physical, connection. Some scholars believe writings about courtly love were a response to religious ideas about love. Many think Capellanus’s De amore was a satire, or a humorous critique, of doctors and theologians. In the first two books, he advises a young man named Walter on how to achieve love and outlines rules for romantic relationships. However, in the third book, he tells Walter that true happiness comes from focusing on God rather than love. This change in tone has led some scholars to believe the first two books were mocking courtly love, while the third book reflects Capellanus’s true beliefs.

Stages

(Adapted from Barbara W. Tuchman)
• The man is drawn to the woman, often through eye contact or a glance
• He admires the woman from a distance
• He publicly expresses his deep love and devotion
• The woman politely refuses his advances
• He tries again, promising to act with honor and remain loyal
• He shows great sadness and longing due to unfulfilled love
• He performs brave and noble acts to prove his worth
• The secret love becomes known
• They continue to have adventures while keeping their love hidden