An aphrodisiac is a substance that increases sexual desire, attraction, pleasure, or behavior. These substances can be found in plants, spices, foods, or man-made chemicals. Natural aphrodisiacs, like cannabis or cocaine, are divided into plant-based and non-plant-based types. Man-made aphrodisiacs include substances such as MDMA and methamphetamine. Aphrodisiacs can be grouped based on their effects: psychological (affecting the mind) or physiological (affecting the body). Some aphrodisiacs, like bufotenin, have mind-altering properties that may increase sexual desire and pleasure. Others, like yohimbine, relax muscles and can change hormone levels or improve blood flow. Substances that decrease sexual desire are called anaphrodisiacs. Sometimes, the effects of aphrodisiacs may be due to the placebo effect, where a person feels a change even if the substance has no real effect.

Both boys and girls can benefit from aphrodisiacs, but they are more commonly studied in males. This is partly because historical research focused on males, and recent studies are now exploring how aphrodisiacs may help female sexual function. Cultural beliefs about appropriate sexual behavior for boys and girls also influence the research on aphrodisiacs.

History

The word "aphrodisiac" comes from the Greek word ἀφροδισιακόν, which means "sexual" or "related to Aphrodite," the Greek goddess of love. For many years, people have believed that certain foods, drinks, and behaviors could help improve sexual desire or pleasure. However, from a scientific perspective, these effects may often be due to the belief that they work, known as the placebo effect. Some medicines also affect sexual desire in ways that are not always clear or consistent. For example, a medicine called bupropion (Wellbutrin) is used to treat depression. It can help counteract the effects of other medicines that lower sexual desire, but it is not considered an aphrodisiac because it only increases desire when other medicines are reducing it.

Many ancient cultures, including Chinese, Indian, Egyptian, Roman, and Greek societies, believed that certain substances could improve sexual desire, pleasure, or behavior. This was important because some men had trouble with sexual function and could not reproduce. In these cultures, men who could not father children were often seen as less successful, while those who could were respected. As a result, people sought substances that could improve sexual performance. Even those without such issues sometimes wanted ways to enhance their sexual experiences. Over time, these beliefs and uses were recorded in writings, which were passed down through generations. For example, Hindu poems from around 2000 to 1000 BCE mentioned performance-enhancing ingredients and their uses. Chinese texts date back to 2697 to 2595 BCE. Roman and Chinese cultures believed that animal genitalia had aphrodisiac qualities, while Egyptian writings included tips for treating sexual difficulties. In post-classical West Africa, a book called Advising Men on Sexual Engagement with Their Women from the Timbuktu Manuscripts provided guidance on aphrodisiacs and treatments for infertility. It included advice on how men could improve their relationships with their wives. According to Hammer, this text offered practical tips for increasing sexual pleasure for both men and women during a time when women’s sexual experiences were rarely discussed in the West.

Substances such as ambergris, toads from the Bufo genus, yohimbine, horny goat weed, ginseng, alcohol, and certain foods are mentioned in historical texts as having aphrodisiac qualities. While many plants, extracts, or hormones have been suggested as aphrodisiacs, there is limited strong scientific evidence to support their effectiveness or safety over long periods.

In recent years, more attention has been given to the use of aphrodisiac drugs. In 2020, Brian Earp and Julian Savulescu wrote a book titled Love Drugs: The Chemical Future of Relationships (UK title: Love Is the Drug: The Chemical Future of Our Relationships). They discussed the idea that certain medications might be used ethically in relationships to help people fall in love or end relationships.

Types

Ambergris is found in the gut of sperm whales. It is commonly used in Arab cultures as pain relief for headaches or to help with performance. A chemical called ambrein in ambergris increases testosterone levels, which can affect sexual desire and behavior in animals. More research is needed to understand its effects on humans.

Bufotenin is found in the skin and glands of toads from the genus Bufo. It is used in the Caribbean and China. In the Caribbean, it is called "Love Stone" and used as an aphrodisiac. In China, it is called "Chan su" and used as a heart medication. Studies show that this compound can lower a toad’s heart rate, but its effects on humans are unknown.

Yohimbine is found in the bark of yohim trees in West Africa. It was traditionally used in West African cultures by boiling the bark and drinking the water to increase sexual desire. It is also found in over-the-counter health products. Yohimbine is an indole alkaloid and an adrenoceptor antagonist. Possible side effects include nausea, anxiety, irregular heartbeats, and restlessness.

Horny goat weed (Epimedii herba) is used in Chinese folk medicine. It was thought to help treat health issues and improve sexual desire, pleasure, or behavior. It contains a compound called icariin, a flavanol glycoside. Its name comes from goats in the region eating the plant. Farmers noticed its effects on goats and began using it to increase farm workers.

Alcohol is sometimes seen as having aphrodisiac-like effects because it is a central nervous system depressant. Depressants can increase sexual desire by reducing inhibition. Alcohol affects people physically and mentally, making it hard to determine how it influences sexual behavior. Small amounts may increase sexual desire, while larger amounts can cause problems reaching sexual pleasure. Long-term alcohol use is linked to sexual dysfunction.

Marijuana effects on sexual desire are mixed. Some users report increased desire or pleasure, while others say it has no effect. Factors like how much is used, individual sensitivity, and the type of marijuana may influence outcomes.

Many cultures use foods as aphrodisiacs, but there is little scientific research on their effects. Many claims are linked to the placebo effect. Some beliefs come from the appearance of foods resembling body parts, like carrots, bananas, or oysters. Others involve consuming animal parts, such as cow cod soup in Jamaica or balut in the Philippines. Korean bug is eaten alive or in gelatin form in parts of Asia. The caterpillar fungus (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) is used in China as an aphrodisiac. Stories about Aphrodite, the goddess of love, may explain why seafood is believed to have aphrodisiac qualities. Foods with volatile oils are not widely recognized for improving sexual desire because they can irritate the urinary tract. Chocolate has been reported to increase sexual desire in some women. Cloves and sage are said to have aphrodisiac qualities, but their effects are unclear. Tropical fruits like Borojó and Chontaduro are considered energizers, including for sexual energy.

Ginseng is the root of plants in the genus Panax. Its active ingredients are ginsenosides and saponin glycosides. Ginseng is processed in three ways: fresh ginseng is cut at four years of growth, white ginseng is cut at four to six years, and red ginseng is cut, dried, and steamed at six years. Red ginseng is considered the most effective aphrodisiac. Possible side effects include mild stomach discomfort.

Maca is a Peruvian plant sometimes called "Peruvian ginseng," even though it is not related to ginseng. It has been used as a tonic to improve sexual performance.

Party drugs are sometimes reported to have aphrodisiac effects. Ecstasy users say they feel more sexual desire or pleasure, but some report delayed orgasm or erectile issues in men. Poppers, which are inhaled, are linked to increased sexual pleasure. Possible side effects include headaches, nausea, and temporary erectile difficulties.

Amphetamine, methylphenidate, and methamphetamine are phenethylamine derivatives. They can increase libido and cause frequent or prolonged erections, especially in high doses. In some people, these drugs may reduce libido.

2C-B was sold in 5 mg pills as a supposed aphrodisiac under the name "Erox" by a German company.

Male sexual desire is linked to hormone levels, especially testosterone. When testosterone levels are low, such as in postmenopausal women or men over 60, supplements that claim to increase testosterone are sometimes used to improve libido, though results are limited. Long-term use of synthetic oral testosterone is linked to increased risks of heart disease.

Risks

Solid evidence is difficult to find because these substances come from many different places and cultures, which can lead to different results. This happens because how they grow and are collected can vary. The same is true for substances that are not natural, as differences in how people use them and how sensitive individuals are can also change the results. Folk medicine and treatments people choose on their own can be dangerous because the harmful effects are not always known. People who look up this information online may not be told about these dangers.

General and cited references

• Gabriele Froböse, Rolf Froböse, and Michael Gross (Translator). Lust and Love: Is It More than Chemistry? Published by Royal Society of Chemistry in 2006. ISBN: 0-85404-867-7.
• Michael Scott. Pillow Talk: A Comprehensive Guide to Erotic Hypnosis and Relyfe Programming. Published by Blue Deck Press in 2011. ISBN: 0-98341-640-0.