Twelfth Night, or What You Will is a romantic comedy written by William Shakespeare. It was probably written between 1601 and 1602 as a special play for the Twelfth Night celebration, which marks the end of the Christmas season. The story follows two twins, Viola and Sebastian, who are separated during a shipwreck. Viola, pretending to be a boy named "Cesario," becomes loved by Duke Orsino, who is already in love with Countess Olivia. When Olivia meets Viola, she falls in love with her, not knowing she is a woman.

The play includes music and lively scenes typical of Twelfth Night celebrations. Its plot was inspired by a short story titled "Of Apollonius and Silla" by Barnabe Rich, which was based on a story by Matteo Bandello. The first public performance of the play took place on February 2, 1602, during Candlemas, the official end of the Christmas and Epiphany season in the Christian church calendar. The play was not published until it was included in the First Folio in 1623.

Synopsis

Viola is shipwrecked on the coast of Illyria and is helped to shore by a captain. She has lost contact with her twin brother, Sebastian, whom she believes has died. With the captain’s help, Viola disguises herself as a young man named Cesario and begins working for Duke Orsino. Orsino believes he is in love with Olivia, who is grieving and refuses to attend events, meet men, or accept love or marriage proposals from anyone, including Orsino, for seven years. Orsino asks Cesario to deliver messages expressing his love for Olivia. However, Olivia falls in love with Cesario, which conflicts with her promise to remain in mourning. Meanwhile, Viola falls in love with Orsino, creating a love triangle: Viola loves Orsino, Orsino loves Olivia, and Olivia loves Viola, who is disguised as Cesario.

In a separate story, several characters trick Olivia’s proud servant, Malvolio, into believing Olivia is in love with him. This involves Olivia’s rowdy uncle, Sir Toby Belch; a foolish suitor, Sir Andrew Aguecheek; Olivia’s servants Maria and Fabian; and Olivia’s clever fool, Feste. Sir Toby and Sir Andrew drink and cause noise, disturbing Olivia’s household. Malvolio scolds them, and Sir Toby responds with a joke. Maria suggests tricking Malvolio by forging a letter that appears to be from Olivia. The letter tells Malvolio to wear yellow stockings, act rudely toward servants, and smile constantly in Olivia’s presence. Malvolio finds the letter, follows its instructions, and behaves strangely. Olivia thinks he is acting mad and leaves him with those who teased him. The tricksters pretend Malvolio is insane and lock him in a dark room. Feste visits Malvolio, mocking him as both himself and a disguised priest.

Meanwhile, Viola’s twin brother, Sebastian, is rescued by Antonio, a sea captain who once fought Orsino. Antonio accompanies Sebastian to Illyria despite the danger, as he admires Sebastian. Sir Toby and Fabian trick Sir Andrew into challenging Cesario to a duel, knowing neither can fight. Antonio interrupts the duel, mistaking Cesario for Sebastian. Orsino’s officers arrest Antonio. Later, Sir Andrew mistakes Sebastian for Cesario and slaps him, leading Sebastian to fight back. Olivia sees the fight and scolds Sir Toby, Sir Andrew, and Fabian. Thinking Sebastian is Cesario, Olivia asks him to marry her, and they secretly wed in a church. When Cesario and Sebastian are together, Olivia and Orsino are surprised by their physical similarity. Viola then reveals her true identity and is reunited with Sebastian.

Sebastian and Viola are reunited, and the confusion is resolved. Orsino and Viola marry. Fabian admits the trick played on Malvolio and reveals Sir Toby has married Maria. Malvolio vows revenge but is calmed by Orsino’s request for Fabian to speak with him. The play ends with Feste singing a song.

Setting

Illyria, the unique setting of Twelfth Night, plays an important role in creating the play's romantic mood.

Illyria was an ancient region in the Western Balkans. Its coast, which is the eastern part of the Adriatic Sea, was the only part of ancient Illyria relevant to the play. This area included the coasts of modern-day Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Albania. The city-state of the Republic of Ragusa, now known as Dubrovnik, Croatia, is believed to have been the setting of the play.

Illyria may have been inspired by the Roman comedy Menaechmi, which also features a story about twins mistaken for each other. Illyria is also mentioned in Shakespeare’s earlier play Henry VI, Part 2, where it is described as a place known for pirates. Most of the characters in Twelfth Night have Italian names, but some of the comic characters have English names. Interestingly, Olivia, a character from Illyria, has an English uncle named Sir Toby Belch.

Some details in the play hint at connections to England. For example, Viola uses the phrase "Westward ho!" which was a common shout used by boatmen in 16th-century London. Additionally, Antonio suggests that Sebastian stay at "The Elephant," a pub located near the Globe Theatre.

Date and text

The full title of the play is Twelfth Night, or What You Will. Subtitles for plays were popular during the Elizabethan era. Although some editors believe The Merchant of Venice had another name, The Jew of Venice, as a subtitle, Twelfth Night is the only Shakespeare play to have one when it was first published.

The play was likely completed between 1600 and 1601, as it mentions events from that time. A law student named John Manningham, who studied at the Middle Temple in London, wrote about a performance of the play on February 2, 1602 (a holiday called Candlemas). This performance took place in the hall of the Middle Temple at the end of Christmastide, and students were invited to attend. This was the first public performance of the play recorded in history. The play was not published until it was included in the First Folio in 1623.

Themes

Viola is not the only female character in Shakespeare's plays who disguises herself as a man. In Shakespeare's time, rules required that young boys play female roles on stage, which created humor through the many disguises in plays. Viola's cross-dressing allows her to take on roles usually done by men, such as delivering messages between Orsino and Olivia or acting as Orsino's trusted advisor. However, she does not directly change the story’s events, unlike other characters like Rosalind in As You Like It and Portia in The Merchant of Venice, who use their disguises to influence the plot. Instead, Viola lets time and events resolve the story naturally.

In Twelfth Night, the play explores ideas about gender and attraction. Because a male actor played Viola, the audience saw her as both male and female, creating a sense of uncertainty about her identity. Some modern scholars believe this mix of male actors and Viola’s disguise makes the play’s discussion of gender issues especially clear. They also note that the play reflects a common belief in Shakespeare’s time: that women were considered less perfect versions of men, which explains the similarities between male and female characters in the play.

In Act I, Scene v, when Olivia first meets "Cesario" (Viola), she asks, "Are you a comedian?" (a term for an actor in Shakespeare’s time). Viola replies, "I am not that I play," showing how she is pretending to be a man. This line highlights the play’s focus on acting and pretending. The plot involving Malvolio also connects to these themes. In Act III, Scene iv, Fabian says, "If this were played on a stage now, I could condemn it as an improbable fiction," linking the story to the idea of performance. In Act IV, Scene ii, Feste (the Fool) acts as two different characters during a scene for Malvolio, switching between the voice of Sir Topas, a local priest, and his own voice. He ends by comparing himself to "the old Vice" from English Morality plays. Feste’s songs and dialogue also show influences from English folk traditions, such as his final song in Act V, which ends with the line, "And we'll strive to please you every day," a phrase similar to lines in English folk plays.

Performance history

Some experts believe that Twelfth Night, or What You Will (the play's full name) was likely written for a performance during Twelfth Night celebrations at Whitehall Palace on January 6, 1601, to mark the end of a visit by an Italian diplomat, the Duke of Orsino. Others disagree, saying the strict rules of Queen Elizabeth I's court would have made it impossible for Shakespeare to name a main character in a comedy after the same diplomat attending the performance. It is more likely that Shakespeare used the name from the 1601 visit when writing the play, which was first performed the next winter. The play was performed again at court on Easter Monday in 1618 and on Candlemas night in 1623.

The earliest public performance took place at Middle Temple Hall, one of the Inns of Court, on February 2 (Candlemas night) 1602. A lawyer named John Manningham wrote in his diary:

Clearly, Manningham enjoyed the story of Malvolio the most. He noted the play's similarity to one of Shakespeare's earlier works and its connection to one of its sources, the Inganni plays.

The play was among the first Shakespearean works performed during the Restoration period. An adaptation by Sir William Davenant was staged in 1661, with Thomas Betterton playing Sir Toby Belch. Samuel Pepys called the play "silly" but saw it three times between 1661 and 1669. Another adaptation, Love Betray'd, or, The Agreeable Disappointment, was performed at Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1703.

After being performed only in adapted versions during the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the original Shakespearean text of Twelfth Night was revived in 1741 at Drury Lane. In 1820, an operatic version by Frederic Reynolds, with music by Henry Bishop, was staged.

Important productions included one in 1912 by Harley Granville-Barker and another in 1916 at the Old Vic. In 1931, Lilian Baylis reopened Sadler's Wells Theatre with a notable production starring Ralph Richardson as Sir Toby and John Gielgud as Malvolio. The Old Vic Theatre was reopened in 1950 after wartime damage, featuring Peggy Ashcroft as Viola. Gielgud directed a production at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre in 1955, with Laurence Olivier as Malvolio and Vivien Leigh playing both Viola and Sebastian. The longest-running Broadway production was Margaret Webster's 1940 staging, starring Maurice Evans as Malvolio and Helen Hayes as Viola. It lasted 129 performances.

A memorable 1984 production at the Guthrie Theater in Minneapolis, directed by Liviu Ciulei, was set in a circus world, highlighting the play's lively, festive tone.

When the play was first performed, all female roles were played by men or boys. For centuries, women and girls have played female roles in all plays. In 1999 and 2007, Propeller staged the play with an all-male cast at the Old Vic and on tour. The Shakespeare's Globe Theatre in London has produced many popular all-male performances, including a 2012 season where Mark Rylance played Olivia. This season was preceded by a performance at Middle Temple Hall to celebrate the 400th anniversary of the play's first performance. Stephen Fry played Malvolio in a 2012–13 revival, later moving to the West End and Broadway.

Many famous actresses have played Viola in the second half of the 20th century, with their performances often linked to how they portray the breaking of traditional gender roles. For example, a 1947 production focused on post-World War II unity, with Beatrix Lehmann as Viola. A 1966 Royal Shakespeare Company production showed more physical interaction between characters, with Diana Rigg as Viola displaying greater attraction to the Duke. John Barton's 1969 production, starring Judi Dench as Viola and Donald Sinden as Malvolio, was praised for its portrayal of a society in decline.

Malvolio is a popular character for actors. He has been played by Ian Holm, Simon Russell Beale, Patrick Stewart, Derek Jacobi, Richard Wilson, and Stephen Fry.

In 2017, the Royal National Theatre changed some roles to female, including Malvolio, who became Malvolia, played by Tamsin Greig. This production explored themes of gender and sexuality. In 2017–18, the Royal Shakespeare Company staged a production directed by Christopher Luscombe, with Adrian Edmondson as Malvolio, Kara Tointon as Olivia, and Dinita Gohil as Viola.

In 2022, Old Fruit Jar Productions staged a version of Twelfth Night at the Royal Court Theatre in Liverpool, inspired by the 1980s. The play was set in lively bars instead of aristocratic homes, introducing Shakespeare to new audiences.

In 2023, the St. Louis Shakespeare Festival presented Twelfth Night as part of its annual Shakespeare in the Park series in Forest Park. Directed by Lisa Portes, the production reimagined the play in a modern Miami setting, with Viola and Sebastian as Cuban refugees. The cast included Gabriela Saker as Viola and Felipe Carrasco as Orsino, with a predominantly Latiné cast. The production featured live music and a Latin-inspired style, emphasizing themes of migration, identity, and community.

Adaptations

The play Twelfth Night has inspired many new versions, especially in musical theatre. These versions often explore themes like young women seeking independence in a male-dominated world, exploring gender roles, and same-sex relationships. Examples include Your Own Thing (1968), Music Is (1977), All Shook Up (2005), and Play On! (1997). The last two are jukebox musicals that use songs by Elvis Presley and Duke Ellington. Another version, Illyria (2002), by Pete Mills, is still performed in the United States. In 2018, a new musical version was created by the Public Theatre, with original music by Shaina Taub, who also played the role of Feste. In 1999, the Takarazuka Revue adapted the play as Epiphany, adding more comments about theatre, actors, and gender on stage, with all roles played by women. Most modern versions of the play are still performed in Early Modern English, the language Shakespeare used.

Theatre Grottesco, a company inspired by French composer Lecocq, created a version called Grottesco's 12th Night (2008) that focuses on the servants in the story. This version highlights issues like class differences and society without strong leadership. In New York City, Turn to Flesh Productions created two plays about Malvolio: A Comedy of Heirors, or The Imposters by Emily C. A. Snyder and Malvolio's Revenge by Duncan Pflaster. These plays were written for a program that asks for new plays inspired by Shakespeare.

Adaptations of Twelfth Night have also appeared in film and television. In 1910, Vitagraph Studios made a silent film with actors Florence Turner, Julia Swayne Gordon, and Marin Sais. In 1985, Just One of the Guys updated the story for a modern high school. In 1986, an Australian version was made. In 1996, a film set in the 19th century, directed by Trevor Nunn, starred Imogen Stubbs as Viola and Nigel Hawthorne as Malvolio. The film received some criticism for reducing the comedy to drama. In 1998, the movie Shakespeare in Love included references to Twelfth Night, with the character Viola inspiring Shakespeare’s heroine. In 2001, Motocrossed set the story in motocross racing. In 2004, Wicker Park had an amateur production of the play. In 2006, She's the Man updated the story as a modern teen comedy, with a soccer rivalry and a love triangle. In 2018, Adam Smethurst directed a 21st-century version of the play.

On May 14, 1937, the BBC Television Service in London broadcast a thirty-minute excerpt of Twelfth Night, the first time a Shakespeare play was shown on TV. The production, directed by George More O'Ferrall, featured young actress Greer Garson, who later won an Academy Award. No recordings of the performance exist, only still photographs. In 1939, the entire play was produced for TV, directed by Michel Saint-Denis and starring Peggy Ashcroft. In 1957, NBC made a color version of the play for U.S. television. In 1964, Canada produced a TV version with Martha Henry as Viola, and in 1966, Australia made a version. In 1969, a UK version directed by John Sichel and John Dexter starred Joan Plowright, Alec Guinness, and Tommy Steele. In 1980, the BBC Television Shakespeare series included a version with Felicity Kendal as Viola. In 1988, Kenneth Branagh’s stage production was adapted for TV. In 1998, a Lincoln Center Theater version was broadcast on PBS. In 2003, a tele-movie set in the present day featured a multi-ethnic cast. An episode of the British series Skins included a performance of Twelfth Night.

Cathleen Nesbitt’s 1923 BBC radio adaptation was the first complete Shakespeare play ever broadcast on British radio. Nesbitt played both Viola and Sebastian, and Gerald Lawrence played Orsino. In 1937, Orson Welles and Tallulah Bankhead performed an adaptation on CBS Radio Playhouse. Welles later played Malvolio in a Mercury Theater Company production. The BBC has also produced several full adaptations of Twelfth Night on radio.

Influence

The play is often considered one of the best ever written and is called "The Perfect Comedy." The Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard begins his 1844 book Philosophical Fragments with the line "Better well hanged than ill wed," which is a version of a line spoken by Feste to Maria in Act 1, Scene 5: "Many a good hanging prevents a bad marriage." The philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche also mentions a part of the play in one of his books, specifically referencing Sir Andrew Aguecheek’s comment in Act 1, Scene 3 about eating too much beef affecting his thinking.

Agatha Christie’s 1940 mystery novel Sad Cypress takes its name from a song in Act II, Scene IV of Twelfth Night.

In Vita Sackville-West’s 1930 novel The Edwardians, the main characters are named Sebastian and Viola, and they are brother and sister. In the introduction to the novel, Victoria Glendinning writes that Sebastian represents a character Vita Sackville-West wished to be, while Viola resembles Vita herself.

American playwright Ken Ludwig wrote a play called Leading Ladies, which is inspired by Twelfth Night.

Cassandra Clare’s 2009 novel City of Glass has chapter names based on quotes from Antonio and Sebastian in Twelfth Night.

A British music group named Twelfth Night is named after the play.

In the movie Hotel for Dogs, two dogs are named Sebastian and Viola.

Clive Barker’s short story Sex, Death and Starshine is about a failed production of Twelfth Night.

Fans of Sherlock Holmes believe his birthday is January 6th because he quotes lines from Twelfth Night more often than from other Shakespeare plays.

In Shirley Jackson’s 1959 novel The Haunting of Hill House, characters often say a line from Feste’s song, "O Mistress Mine," especially the phrase "journeys end in lovers meeting," which is spoken most often by Eleanor.

In the anime Kiddy Grade, characters named Viola and Cesario are named after Viola and her alter ego, Cesario, from the play.

Elizabeth Hand’s novella Illyria includes a high school production of Twelfth Night, with many references to the play, especially Feste’s song.

The 2006 romantic comedy She’s the Man is loosely based on Twelfth Night.

In Club Penguin, a play called Twelfth Fish is a humorous version of Shakespeare’s works. It tells the story of a countess, a jester, and a bard who catch a talking fish. At the end, they eat the fish. Many lines in the play are jokes based on Shakespeare’s writing.

Sara Farizan’s 2014 young adult novel Tell Me Again How a Crush Should Feel includes a high school production of Twelfth Night, where the character Saskia plays Viola/Cesario and draws attention from the main character, Leila.

Vidyadhar Gokhale’s play Madanachi Manjiri (मदनाची मंजिरी) is an adaptation of Twelfth Night.