The Age of Innocence is a book written by American author Edith Wharton. It was published on October 25, 1920. This was her eighth novel and was first released in four parts in the magazine Pictorial Review in 1920. Later that same year, the book was published by D. Appleton & Company. The novel won the 1921 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction, making Wharton the first woman to receive this award. At first, the committee had decided to give the prize to Sinclair Lewis for his book Main Street, but the judges rejected Lewis’s work for political reasons. This decision led to Wharton being called the American "First Lady of Letters." The story takes place in the 1870s in upper-class New York City during the "Gilded Age." Wharton wrote the book when she was in her 50s, after she had already become a well-known and highly sought-after author.

Background

The Age of Innocence, which takes place during Wharton's childhood, is a kinder and more gentle story than The House of Mirth, which she published in 1905. In her autobiography, Wharton wrote that The Age of Innocence allowed her to "escape for a moment by returning to my childhood memories of a long-lost America." She also noted that it became clear to her that the world she had grown up in had been destroyed by 1914. Scholars and readers agree that The Age of Innocence is a story that tries to understand how the past and present can coexist.

Wharton was raised in the strict and formal society of New York, which is shown in the story. She spent much of her middle years, including all of World War I, in Europe, where the effects of new, powerful war machines were felt strongly. Millicent Bell, in her book The Cambridge Companion to Wharton, explained that The Age of Innocence was written and first read after the death of Theodore Roosevelt and right after World War I. She said the ending reminds people of many losses, including Roosevelt’s death and the destruction of the world before the war, which Wharton valued.

The Age of Innocence follows an upper-class couple preparing for marriage, and the arrival of the bride’s cousin, who has a scandalous past, which threatens their happiness. The novel questions the beliefs and values of 1870s New York society but does not completely criticize it. It is known for Wharton’s careful descriptions and accurate portrayal of how the wealthy East Coast American class lived in the 19th century, as well as for its sad story. Wharton was 58 years old when the book was published; she had lived in that world and saw it change greatly by the end of World War I.

The title The Age of Innocence is a clever way to describe the difference between the polite, outward behavior of New York society and the hidden, complicated actions behind it. The title is believed to come from a popular painting called A Little Girl by Sir Joshua Reynolds, which later became known as The Age of Innocence. The engraver Joseph Grozer gave the painting that name in 1794, and it was widely used to represent childhood in the late 18th century. While the title is ironic, it is not as harsh as the title of The House of Mirth, which Wharton published in 1905.

Plot summary

The story begins in the 1870s with Newland Archer, a lawyer and the heir to one of New York City's most famous families. He is happy about his upcoming marriage to May Welland, a sheltered and beautiful woman. However, his feelings change after meeting Countess Ellen Olenska, May's cousin. Ellen is different from May—she is experienced and independent. Ellen returned to New York after leaving her husband, a Polish count, in a scandalous way. At first, Newland is worried about how Ellen's presence might affect May's family's reputation, but he becomes interested in Ellen. He admires her because she does not follow New York society's strict rules. As his admiration for Ellen grows, he begins to question whether marrying May is the right choice.

Ellen's decision to divorce her husband causes problems for her family, who fear scandal and shame. While living apart is sometimes allowed, divorce is not. To protect May's family's reputation, a friend of Newland asks him to convince Ellen not to proceed with the divorce. He succeeds, but during this time, he begins to care for Ellen. Afraid of falling in love with her, Newland asks May to elope and marry sooner, but she refuses.

Later, Newland tells Ellen he loves her. Ellen loves him too, but she is worried about hurting May and does not want him to leave his wife for her. Newland receives a message from May agreeing to marry earlier.

Newland and May marry. He tries to forget Ellen. His marriage is not fulfilling, and the social life he once enjoyed feels empty. Though Ellen lives in Washington and stays distant, he cannot stop loving her. Their paths cross in Newport, Rhode Island. Newland learns that Ellen's ex-husband wants her to return to him, but she refuses. Her family, upset by her independence, has cut off her money, as her husband already did.

Newland desperately searches for a way to leave May and be with Ellen. He begs Ellen to run away with him, but she refuses. Later, Ellen is asked to return to New York to care for her sick grandmother, who agrees to support her decision to stay separated.

Back in New York, Ellen agrees to meet Newland in secret. After their meeting, Newland discovers Ellen plans to return to Europe. When May announces a farewell party for Ellen, Newland decides to leave May and follow Ellen. That night, after the party, Newland prepares to tell May he is leaving. May interrupts him and reveals she is pregnant, a secret she shared with Ellen two weeks earlier. She implies Ellen's return to Europe is because of the pregnancy. Newland chooses to stay with May for their child's sake.

Twenty-six years later, after May's death, Newland and his eldest son visit Paris. The son arranges to meet Ellen, who lives there. Newland is surprised to see Ellen again. He sends his son to visit Ellen alone while he waits outside. He considers going to see her but decides not to. Instead, he returns to his hotel. Newland's final thought about his love for Ellen is, "It's more real to me here than if I went up."

Major characters

The main character of the story is a young, well-known, and successful lawyer who lives with his mother and sister in a beautiful house in New York City. From a young age, his life has been shaped by the traditions and expectations of wealthy New York society. His engagement to May Welland is one of many achievements he has made. At the beginning of the story, he is proud and happy to imagine a traditional marriage where he would be the husband-teacher and she the wife-student. His life changes when he meets Countess Ellen Olenska. Through their friendship and later love, he starts to question the values he was raised with. He notices the unfair treatment of women in New York society and the empty traditions of its people. He struggles to balance his duty to May with his love for Ellen. He cannot find a place for their love in the strict and judgmental world of New York society. Throughout the story, he breaks the rules of acceptable behavior for love of Ellen: first going to Skuytercliff with her, then to Boston, and finally deciding to follow her to Europe (though he later changes his mind). In the end, Newland realizes that the only place for their love is in his memories. Some scholars believe that Wharton's character is most clearly shown in Newland rather than Ellen.

Newland Archer's fiancée and later wife. She was raised to be a perfect wife and mother, and she follows all of society's traditions carefully. She is mostly a shallow, uninterested, and uninteresting young woman as New York society expects. However, when they are in St. Augustine, May gives Newland a rare glimpse of the maturity and compassion he had not noticed before. She offers to end their engagement so he can marry the woman he truly loves, thinking he wants to be with Mrs. Rushworth, a married woman with whom he had recently ended a relationship. When he tells May that he loves only her, she seems to trust him at first. After their marriage, she begins to suspect that Newland is Ellen's lover. Despite this, May pretends to be happy in public, keeping up the illusion that their marriage is perfect as society expects. Her unhappiness leads her to act in a controlling way, but Newland does not realize this until it is too late. To push Ellen away from him, May tells Ellen about her pregnancy before she is sure of it. Even in their not very good marriage, May still shows some kindness. After May's death, Newland learns that she always knew about his continued love for Ellen. As May was dying, she told their son Dallas that the children could always trust their father, Newland, because he gave up the most meaningful thing to him out of loyalty to their marriage. On the outside, May appears to be very innocent.

Ellen is May's cousin and the granddaughter of Mrs. Manson Mingott. She became a countess by marrying a Polish nobleman named Count Olenski. Her husband was reportedly cruel and abusive, took her money, and had relationships with other women. At the beginning of the story, Ellen has left her unhappy marriage, lived in Venice with her husband's secretary, and returned to New York City to be with her family. She is an independent person who helps Newland see beyond the narrow traditions of New York society. She treats her maid, Nastasia, as an equal, giving the servant her own cape before sending her on an errand. She attends parties with people society considers unreliable, such as Julius Beaufort and Mrs. Lemuel Struthers, and invites Newland, May's fiancé, to visit her. Ellen suffers as much as Newland from their impossible love, but she is willing to stay in an uncertain emotional situation as long as they can love each other from a distance. Her love for Newland influences her important choices: ending her divorce from Count Olenski, staying in America, and offering Newland the chance to have a physical relationship only once, then leaving his life. Her sense of right and wrong and her duty to her family complicate her love for Newland. When she learns of May's pregnancy, Ellen immediately decides to leave America, refusing Newland's attempt to follow her to Europe so that her cousin May can start her family with her husband, Newland. Over time, people's views of Ellen's character have changed. From being seen as a tempting woman to being recognized as an independent woman far ahead of her time, one thing is certain: “Ellen has only to walk alone across a drawing room to challenge its rules.”

Mrs. Mingott is the leader of the powerful Mingott family and the grandmother of Ellen and May. She was born Catherine Spicer, from a family that was not important in society. She became a widow at 28 and has kept her family's social position through her own cleverness and strong personality. She controls her family: at Newland's request, she makes May and Mrs. Welland agree to an earlier wedding date. She also controls money, such as withholding Ellen's living allowance when the family is angry with her, and arranging for her niece Regina Beaufort to ask for money when she is in financial trouble. Mrs. Mingott is an unusual person in the polite world of New York society, sometimes breaking the rules of acceptable behavior, such as receiving guests on the ground floor of her house, even though society associates that practice with women of questionable morals. Her willingness to welcome Ellen is seen with suspicion, and she insists that the rest of the family support Ellen. Mrs. Mingott was inspired by Edith Wharton's own great-great-aunt, Mary Mason Jones, who is said to have given rise to the phrase "Keeping up with the Joneses" because she believed fashionable society would always try to match her standards.

May's mother, who raised her daughter to be a proper member of society. May's lack of imagination, dullness, and strict views about what is and is not appropriate are the result of this influence. Augusta has successfully trained her husband, the weak-willed Mr. Welland, to follow her wishes. Mrs. Welland is the main reason behind May's long engagement. Without her mother's influence, May might have agreed more quickly to Newland's request for an earlier wedding date. After a few years of marriage

Minor characters

• Christine Nilsson: A well-known singer who performs in the opera Faust on the night of Archer and May's engagement at the beginning of the book. She sings in the same opera two years later.
• Mrs. Lovell Mingott: May and Ellen's aunt, and the wife of Mrs. Manson Mingott's son.
• Lawrence Lefferts: A wealthy young man and a member of Archer's social circle. He is considered an expert on proper behavior. Archer believes Lefferts is responsible for New York society's disrespectful refusal to attend Ellen's welcome dinner. According to Archer, Lefferts loudly claims to be moral whenever his wife, Mrs. Gertrude Lefferts, suspects he is having an affair.
• Sillerton Jackson: An expert on the families that make up New York society. He knows who is related to whom and the history of every important family. Mrs. Archer and Janey invite him for dinner to learn about gossip.
• Julius Beaufort: A proud British banker who tries to have an affair with Ellen. He follows her to Skuytercliff during the weekend Archer visits Ellen. His banking business fails, and he leaves New York society in disgrace. His downfall is likely linked to the Panic of 1873.
• Regina Beaufort: Julius Beaufort's wife and Mrs. Manson Mingott's niece. She visits Mrs. Mingott to ask for a loan after her husband's bank fails. Her visit causes Mrs. Mingott to have a stroke.
• Janey Archer: Archer's plain, unmarried sister who rarely goes out and depends on Archer. She and her mother invite guests for dinner to gossip about New York society. Janey dislikes Ellen because Ellen is independent and does not tolerate her husband's abuse.
• Mrs. Adeline Archer: Archer's widowed mother. She rarely attends events but enjoys hearing about society. She and Janey strongly support the values of New York society. Like Janey, she views Ellen with suspicion. Henry van der Luyden is her cousin. She is partly based on Edith Wharton's own mother, Lucretia Rhinelander.
• Mrs. Lemuel Struthers: A woman on the edges of New York society. She is treated with suspicion and scorn until Ellen befriends her. She eventually becomes popular; at the end of the novel, May attends her parties.
• Count Olenski: Ellen's husband, a wasteful aristocrat who made Ellen leave due to neglect and misery. At first, Count Olenski lets Ellen go. Later, he sends his secretary to America to ask Ellen to return, with the condition that she only needs to occasionally appear as his hostess. He never appears in the story. He constantly cheats on Ellen, and a comment from Lefferts suggests he has relationships with men as well. Other mistreatments and infidelities are unknown, but he seems cruel.
• Sophy Jackson: Sillerton Jackson's unmarried sister. She is a friend of Janey and Mrs. Archer.
• Louisa and Henry van der Luyden: Cousins of the Archers and the most powerful people in New York society. They only attend events to help society. Mrs. Archer visits them after New York society ignores Ellen. They invite her to a very exclusive party in honor of the Duke of St. Austrey to show society supports her. They are based on the Van R

Themes

One of the most important ideas in the story is the role of wealth and social class. The characters are proud of their social positions, and those from "old money" feel threatened by those from "new money." The characters' lives focus on keeping up with the latest fashion, events, and appearances. Being accepted by high society is very important to the people in this novel, and they are willing to do anything to gain approval. Another common idea is the importance of being accepted by high-class friends. Love is also a clear theme, such as the love between Newland Archer and May Welland, or the strong feelings between Newland Archer and Ellen Olenska. At the start of the novel, Newland is drawn to May's innocence. As the story progresses, the theme of innocence changes, as May's announcement that she is pregnant is used to keep Ellen away from Newland.

Changing perceptions ofThe Age of Innocence

Helen Killoran describes in The Critical Reception of Edith Wharton that critics have always praised Wharton's skill in writing, her careful planning of stories, and her use of clever humor. They also admire her detailed descriptions of rooms and homes, which come from her experience as an interior designer. In the years since the book was published, critics have focused more on how money and differences in social class are shown in the story.

Ellen Olenska and May Welland have been central to discussions about the book. At first, critics believed May Welland acted correctly by speaking openly about her pregnancy to save her marriage. However, some now see her as controlling rather than pitiable. Ellen Olenska raises the general topic of "the woman question" in modern literary analysis, which explores issues related to women's roles.

Instead of focusing on Newland Archer’s wealthy lifestyle, which he did not earn, some modern readers relate to his sad or negative view of life.

Hillary Kelly argues that Wharton’s high social position made her story seem real. She notes that earlier novelists knew storytelling could reveal truths, but Wharton included this idea in the structure of The Age of Innocence and used it as a powerful tool.

Adaptations

• In 1924, Warner Brothers released a silent-film version of the story. Wesley Ruggles directed it, and the film featured Beverly Bayne as Countess Olenska and Elliott Dexter as Newland Archer. This film no longer exists.
• In 1928, Margaret Ayer Barnes adapted the novel for the stage. The play was first performed on Broadway, with Katharine Cornell playing Countess Olenska.
• In 1934, RKO Studios produced a film version directed by Philip Moeller. The film was based on the novel and the play, and it starred Irene Dunne as Countess Olenska and John Boles as Newland Archer.
• In 1947, a radio adaptation of the story was broadcast as part of the Theatre Guild on the Air series.
• In 1993, Martin Scorsese directed a film version of the story. The film featured Michelle Pfeiffer as Countess Olenska, Daniel Day-Lewis as Newland Archer, and Winona Ryder as May Welland Archer. Richard E. Grant and Miriam Margolyes also appeared. Winona Ryder received an Academy Award nomination and a Golden Globe for her role. The film won the Academy Award for Best Costume Design.
• In 2009, an episode of the TV show Gossip Girl titled "The Age of Dissonance" aired. In the episode, characters performed a play version of The Age of Innocence, and their lives mirrored the story’s events.
• In 2018, a stage adaptation by Douglas McGrath was produced by The Hartford Stage and McCarter Theatre. The play featured Sierra Boggess and Boyd Gaines in leading roles.
• In 2024, the Old Globe Theatre in San Diego, CA, premiered a new adaptation commissioned by the theatre.
• In 2025, Netflix announced a new TV series adaptation of the novel. The series, created by Emma Frost, stars Kristine Froseth as May Welland, Ben Radcliffe as Newland Archer, Camila Morrone as Ellen Olenska, and Margo Martindale as Mrs. Manson-Mingott.