Santorini, officially known as Thira or Thera, is a Greek island located in the southern Aegean Sea, approximately 200 km (120 mi) southeast of the mainland. It is the largest island in a small, circular group of islands formed by the Santorini caldera. It is the southernmost island in the Cyclades group, covering an area of about 73 km (28 mi) and having a population of 15,480 according to the 2021 census. The Santorini municipality includes the inhabited islands of Santorini and Therasia, as well as the uninhabited islands of Nea Kameni, Palaia Kameni, Aspronisi, Anydros, and Christiana. The total land area of the municipality is 90 km (35 mi). Santorini is part of the Thira regional unit.

Santorini is the most active volcanic area in the South Aegean Volcanic Arc. This volcanic arc is about 500 km (300 mi) long and 20 to 40 km (12 to 25 mi) wide. Volcanic activity in the region began around 3–4 million years ago, and volcanic activity on Thera started about 2 million years ago with lava flows from vents near Akrotiri. One of the largest volcanic eruptions in recorded history occurred on the island about 3,600 years ago, creating a large, water-filled caldera surrounded by thick layers of volcanic ash.

Names

The name "Santorini" comes from "Saint Irene," named after an old church in the village of Perissa. Influenced by the Venetian people, the island was called Santorini as early as the middle of the twelfth century. The first recorded mention of this name was made by the geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi around 1154.

In ancient times, the island was known as "Thēra." Before that, ancient writers called it "Kallístē," which means "the most beautiful one," and "Strongýlē," meaning "the circular one." The name "Thēra" was given in honor of Theras, a leader of the Spartans who settled on the island and named it. This name was officially used again in the nineteenth century for the island and its main city. However, the name "Santorini" remains commonly used by people today.

History

The island was the location of one of the largest volcanic eruptions in recorded history: the Minoan eruption, also called the Thera eruption, which happened about 3,600 years ago during the time when the Minoan civilization was strong. The eruption created a large crater surrounded by volcanic ash deposits that were hundreds of meters deep. Some scientists believe this eruption may have inspired the story of the lost civilization of Atlantis. The eruption lasted for weeks and caused huge tsunami waves.

Volcanic activity in the region began around 3–4 million years ago, but volcanic activity on Thera started about 2 million years ago, when lava from vents near Akrotiri was released.

Starting in 1967, archaeologists led by Spyridon Marinatos began excavating the Akrotiri site, which was not known by its current name at the time. This site is now the best-known Minoan location outside Crete, the home of the Minoan culture. Only the southern part of a large town has been uncovered, but it has revealed multi-level buildings, streets, and squares with walls as tall as eight meters, all covered by hardened volcanic ash. The site was not a palace like those found in Crete or a place for storing goods. Its well-built structures and colorful wall paintings show that it was a complex and organized community. A loom workshop suggests that textiles were made for trade. This Bronze Age civilization existed between 3000 and 2000 BC, reaching its peak between 2000 and 1630 BC.

Many of the houses in Akrotiri were large, some with three floors. Streets, squares, and walls, sometimes eight meters high, show that this was a major town. Much of the town is preserved in layers of volcanic ash. The houses contained large ceramic jars, mills, pottery, and intact stone staircases. Notable remains include wall paintings that have kept their original colors because they were covered by many meters of volcanic ash. These paintings suggest that the people were skilled and had access to resources. Some frescoes show antelopes, a man with fish, pleasure boats with dolphins, and women sitting under canopies. Other frescoes depict people gathering saffron, which they offered to a seated woman, possibly a goddess. The themes of these paintings are different from the artwork of later Greek culture.

The town had an advanced drainage system. Pipes and water closets found at Akrotiri are the oldest of their kind discovered. The pipes were part of two systems, showing that the people used both hot and cold water. The hot water likely came from geothermal sources near the volcano.

The well-preserved ruins of the ancient town are often compared to the ruins of Pompeii in Italy. In September 2005, the canopy covering the ruins collapsed, injuring people and closing the site until 2012, when a new canopy was built.

The oldest signs of human settlement on the island date back to the Late Neolithic period (around 4000 BC or earlier). Around 2000–1650 BC, Akrotiri became a major port in the Aegean Sea. Items found there came not only from Crete but also from Anatolia, Cyprus, Syria, Egypt, the Dodecanese, and the Greek mainland.

The Minoan eruption is a key event for dating the second millennium BC in the Aegean region because evidence of the eruption is found throughout the area. The eruption happened during the "Late Minoan IA" period on Crete and the "Late Cycladic I" period on nearby islands.

Archaeological evidence suggests the eruption occurred around 1500 BC, but other methods, like radiocarbon dating, suggest it happened between 1645–1600 BC. Some scientists question the earlier dates because of these differences.

In The Parting of the Sea: How Volcanoes, Earthquakes, and Plagues Shaped the Exodus Story, geologist Barbara J. Sivertsen suggests a possible connection between this eruption and the plagues described in the Exodus story.

Santorini remained uninhabited during the rest of the Bronze Age, while the Greeks took control of Crete. At Knossos, some ancient texts mention a group called "qe-ra-si-ja," which might be linked to Thera. If this name is interpreted as "The One From Qeras," it could explain how the name "Thera" appeared later in Greek.

After the end of the Bronze Age, the Phoenicians built a settlement on Thera. Herodotus wrote that they called the island Callista and lived there for eight generations. In the ninth century BC, the Dorians built a city on Mesa Vouno, which they named after their leader, Theras. Today, this city is known as Ancient Thera.

In his work Argonautica, written in the third century BC, Apollonius Rhodius told a myth about how the island of Thera was given to the Greek hero Euphemus by Triton, a sea god. Euphemus carried a piece of dirt from Triton, and after dreaming of nursing it, the dirt turned into a woman named Calliste. She told him to throw the dirt into the sea, where it would become an island for his descendants. The island was later named Thera after Euphemus’ descendant, Theras.

The Dorians left stone inscriptions near the temple of Apollo, which describe relationships between men and their lovers. These inscriptions, found by Friedrich Hiller von Gaertringen, may have been part of a ritual or celebration. According to Herodotus, Thera sent colonists to northern Africa, including Cyrene. In the fifth century BC, Thera did not join the Delian League with Athens and instead supported Sparta during the Peloponnesian War. The Athenians briefly controlled the island but lost it after the Battle of Aegospotami. During the Hellenistic period, Thera was an important naval base for Ptolemaic Egypt.

Like other Greek territories, Thera was later ruled by the Romans. When the Roman Empire split, the island became part of the eastern empire, now known as the

Geography

The Cyclades are part of a rock formation called the Cycladic Massif. This formation was created during the Miocene period and changed shape and structure during the Alpine orogeny, a mountain-building event that happened about 60 million years ago. Thera sits on a small non-volcanic base that was once an island measuring about 9 by 6 kilometers. The rocks beneath Thera are mainly metamorphosed limestone and schist, which formed during the Alpine Orogeny. These non-volcanic rocks can be seen in places like Mikros Profititis Ilias, Mesa Vouno, the Gavrillos ridge, Pyrgos, Monolithos, and the inner side of the caldera wall between Cape Plaka and Athinios.

The level of metamorphism in these rocks is called blueschist facies. This type of rock forms when tectonic forces push one plate under another, such as when the African Plate moved beneath the Eurasian Plate between the Oligocene and Miocene periods. This process created the southernmost part of the Cycladic blueschist belt.

Volcanic activity on Santorini is caused by the Hellenic subduction zone, which is located southwest of Crete. Here, the oceanic crust from the northern edge of the African Plate is being pushed under Greece and the Aegean Sea, which has thin continental crust. This movement leads to the formation of the Hellenic arc, a chain of volcanic areas that includes Santorini and other sites like Methana, Milos, and Kos.

Santorini was formed by repeated cycles of shield volcanoes building up and then collapsing into calderas. The inner coast near the caldera has steep cliffs over 300 meters high, showing layers of solidified lava stacked on top of each other. Towns are built on the edges of these cliffs. The land slopes outward from the caldera, and the outer beaches are flat and shallow. The color of beach sand depends on the type of rock exposed, such as the Red Beach, Black Beach, and White Beach, which have sand or pebbles made of hardened lava. The water at darker beaches is warmer because the lava absorbs heat.

The Santorini area includes a group of islands formed by volcanoes, such as Thera, Thirasia, Aspronisi, Palea, and Nea Kameni.

Santorini has erupted many times, with some eruptions being more explosive than others. There have been at least twelve large explosive eruptions, four of which created calderas. The most famous eruption is the Minoan eruption, described below. Volcanic materials range from basalt to rhyolite, with rhyolite eruptions being the most explosive.

The earliest eruptions, many of which happened underwater, occurred on the Akrotiri Peninsula between 650,000 and 550,000 years ago. These eruptions are chemically different from later ones because they contain amphiboles.

Over the past 360,000 years, there have been two major cycles of volcanic activity, each ending with two caldera-forming eruptions. These cycles end when magma changes into rhyolite, causing the most explosive eruptions. Between these major eruptions, smaller eruptions and lava flows build up volcanic cones, which may slow magma movement. This allows magma to collect in large chambers, where it becomes more silicic. When this happens, a large eruption destroys the cone. The Kameni islands in the center of the lagoon are recent examples of such cones, with parts of them underwater.

During the Bronze Age, Santorini was the site of the Minoan eruption, one of the largest volcanic events in human history. This eruption occurred near the current island of Nea Kameni in the caldera. The caldera itself formed hundreds of thousands of years ago when the center of a circular island collapsed due to an eruption emptying its magma chamber. The caldera has been filled multiple times by ignimbrite, a type of volcanic rock, with the most recent filling 21,000 years ago. The northern part of the caldera was later refilled by the volcano, which collapsed again during the Minoan eruption. Before this eruption, the caldera formed a nearly complete ring with only one entrance between Aspronisi and Thera. The eruption destroyed parts of this ring, creating two new channels.

On Santorini, a layer of white volcanic ash from the Minoan eruption is up to 60 meters thick, covering the ground level before the eruption. This layer is divided into three distinct bands, showing different stages of the eruption. In 2006, scientists discovered that the Minoan eruption was much larger than previously thought, releasing 61 cubic kilometers of magma and rock into the atmosphere. This is more than earlier estimates of 39 cubic kilometers. Only the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, the 181 AD eruption of the Taupo Volcano, and possibly the 946 AD eruption of Baekdu Mountain released more material into the atmosphere in the past 5,000 years.

The Minoan eruption has been linked to ancient stories like Atlantis and the Exodus, though these stories are not supported by archaeological evidence. They remain popular in pseudohistory and pseudoarchaeology.

After the Minoan eruption, volcanic activity has focused on the Kameni islands in the center of the lagoon. These islands formed after the Minoan eruption, with the first one emerging from the sea in 197 BC. Nine eruptions have been recorded since then, with the most recent ending in 1950.

In 1707, an underwater volcano broke the surface, forming the current center of activity at Nea Kameni. Eruptions centered here continued, with three recorded in the 20th century, the last in 1950. In 1956, Santorini was hit by a strong earthquake. Although the volcano is currently dormant, steam and carbon dioxide are still released from the active crater on Nea Kameni.

In 2011 and 2012, small

Climate

According to the National Observatory of Athens, Santorini has a hot and dry climate, classified as BSh in the Köppen system, which also includes features of a Mediterranean climate (Csa). This means the area has dry summers and wetter winters. On average, Santorini receives about 270 mm (11 inches) of rain each year and has an average yearly temperature of around 19 °C (66 °F).

Economy

Santorini's main industry is tourism, especially during the summer months. Farming also plays a role in the island's economy, and Santorini is known for its wine production. Before 1960, when more visitors began coming to the island for tourism, Santorini's economy relied on farming and trade.

In the middle of the 1800s, Santorini had strong trade connections with foreign countries, particularly Russia, where it sent all of its wine. Due to its special environment and soil—especially its volcanic ash soil—the island produces unique crops, such as the Santorini cherry tomato. Growing grapes, which has been done since ancient times, was affected by the rise in tourism, which caused a gradual decline in grape production. Growing grapes is the most important part of Santorini's farming industry.

Santorini still has a small wine industry based on the Assyrtiko grape, along with other local white grape varieties like Athiri and Aidani, and red varieties such as Mavrotragano and Mandilaria. The grapevines are very old and resistant to a type of insect called phylloxera, which local winemakers believe is due to the well-drained volcanic soil. These vines did not need to be replaced during a major phylloxera outbreak in the late 1800s. To adapt to the dry climate, the vines are planted far apart, relying on dew for water. They are often trained into low, spiraling baskets to protect the grapes from wind.

A special wine from Santorini is Vinsanto, a sweet and strong dessert wine made from dried Assyrtiko, Athiri, and Aidani grapes. It is aged in barrels for up to 20 to 25 years. Vinsanto becomes a dark, amber-colored wine with sweet, nutty, and honey-like flavors, along with notes of citrus and minerals. It is famous worldwide for its unique taste.

White wines from Santorini are very dry and have strong citrus and mineral aromas from the volcanic soil. Some white wines also have a slight frankincense scent from aging in barrels, similar to Vinsanto. Farming grapes in Santorini is difficult because the hot, dry climate makes the soil less productive. The amount of grapes produced per hectare is only 10 to 20% of what is typical in France or California. Santorini's wines are protected by the "Vinsanto" and "Santorini" OPAP designations, which ensure their quality and origin.

A brewery called the Santorini Brewing Company started operating on the island in 2011. It is located in the area where wine is produced.

Governance

The current municipality of Thera (officially called "Thira," Greek: Δήμος Θήρας) includes all areas on the islands of Santorini and Therasia. It was created in 2011 during a local government reform by combining the former municipalities of Oia and Thera.

Oia is now known as a "Κοινότητα" (community) within the municipality of Thera. It includes two local areas: Therasia and Oia.

The municipality of Thera also includes 12 additional local areas on Santorini: Akrotiri, Emporio, Episkopis Gonia, Exo Gonia, Imerovigli, Karterados, Megalohori, Mesaria, Pyrgos Kallistis, Thera (the main office of the municipality), Vothon, and Vourvoulos.

Attractions

The traditional architecture of Santorini is similar to that of other islands in the Cyclades. Houses are usually low and cube-shaped, made from local stone and painted white or with lime. Sometimes, volcanic ash is used to create different colors on the walls. In recent years, these colors have become more common than white on house facades, following the traditional style that developed before the major earthquake in 1956. A unique feature of Santorini’s homes is the use of hypóskapha, which are rooms built sideways or below ground into the surrounding pumice rock. These rooms are valued for their natural insulation, keeping homes cool in summer and warm in winter. They are also used as storage spaces, especially for storing wine, such as in the Kánava wineries of Santorini.

In 1956, strong earthquakes damaged many buildings on the island. Half of the structures were destroyed completely, and many others needed repairs. The underground homes near the caldera’s edge, where the soil was unstable, had to be abandoned. Most of Santorini’s people moved to Piraeus and Athens during this time.

Between the 15th and 16th centuries, pirates threatened the Cyclades. They stole crops, captured people, and sold them into slavery. The island’s small bays were perfect hiding places for pirates. To protect themselves, the people of Santorini built their homes on high, hard-to-reach ground, placing them close together. Their homes had thick walls with no windows, forming a protective barrier around villages. Additional fortifications were also built across the island to keep residents safe.

• Casteli (or kasteli) were large, fortified settlements. There were five on Santorini: Agios Nikolaos (in Oia), Akrotiri, Emborio, Pyrgos, and Skaros. At the entrance of each casteli, there was a church dedicated to Agia Theodosia, the patron saint of castles.
• Goulas (from the Turkish word kule, meaning "tower") were tall, rectangular towers, often the highest part of a casteli. Four goulas existed on the island. They served as watchtowers and safe places during attacks. They had thick walls, parapets, iron gates, murder holes, and embrasures.
• Viglio were small coastal watchtowers. They were always occupied by guards who watched for pirate ships and raised alarms when they were spotted.

Infrastructure

Electricity on Santorini and Therasia mainly comes from the Thira Power Station in Monolithos, located on the eastern part of Santorini. This power station is owned by the Public Power Corporation (PPC) and uses generators powered by diesel engines and gas turbines. Together, the two islands have a total of 75.09 megawatts of electricity from thermal power and 0.25 megawatts from renewable sources. A project costing €124 million is underway to connect the island to Naxos and the mainland through an underwater cable by 2023.

A fire at the Monolithos power station on August 13, 2018, caused a complete loss of electricity across both islands. Within four days, power was restored to all but 10% of the islands' residents. Ships were sent to deliver two power generators to help restore electricity.

Electricity is managed by The Hellenic Electricity Distribution System Operator (HEDNO S.A. or DEDDIE S.A.), a company fully owned by PPC. A cable connects the electrical systems of Santorini and Therasia.

The main bus station is in Fira, the capital of Santorini. Buses run frequently and travel to most places on the island and to popular tourist areas.

Santorini is connected to other Cyclades islands and to Piraeus, Greece, by ferry daily throughout the year, with up to five direct trips during the summer. The island also has a major airport near Thera, about 6 kilometers southeast of the town. The airport has a long runway that can handle planes like Boeing 737, Airbus A320, and others. Airlines such as Olympic Air, Aegean Airlines, and Ryanair operate flights to the island. Buses, taxis, and hotel services help transport passengers to and from the airport.

Buses in Fira connect to most parts of the island.

Santorini has two ports: Athinios, which is used for ferries, and Skala, the old port. Cruise ships stop near Skala, and passengers are taken to shore by boat. From Skala, visitors can reach Fira by cable car, walking, or riding donkeys and mules. However, animal rights groups have criticized the use of donkeys for tourism due to concerns about their treatment, including lack of water and rest. Tour boats also leave Skala for destinations like Nea Kameni.

Santorini lies in a dry area between the mountains of Crete and the Peloponnese, making water scarce. The island is small, has no rivers, and has soil mostly made of volcanic ash. High summer temperatures and limited surface water led to the use of underground cisterns to collect rainwater from rooftops and courtyards. In the 20th century, water was also brought in from other parts of Greece. Islanders grew crops like grapes and olives that needed little water, relying on morning dew.

After the 1956 earthquake, many cisterns stopped being used. As tourism grew, the old water collection methods could not meet demand, so desalination plants were built to provide non-potable water. Many historic cisterns have since fallen into disrepair.

The first desalination plant was built in Oia in 1992, funded by businessman Aristeidis Alafouzos. By 2003, the plant had three units, two of which were donated by Alafouzos. As of 2020, the plant has six units and produces 2,800 cubic meters of water daily.

Other desalination plants are located in Aghia Paraskevi, Fira, Akrotiri, Exo Gialos, and Therasia. These plants supply water to different areas of the island. Small water production units also operate in Kamari, Emporio, Messaria, and Thirasia.

Water supply and sewage systems on Santorini and Therasia are managed by DEYA Thiras, a company owned by the local government. DEYA Thiras was formed in 2011 by combining two earlier water companies. The Loulas and Evangelos Nomikos Foundation has supported projects to improve water and sewage systems on the islands.

Notable people

• Aristeidis Alafouzos is a businessman.
• Giannis Alafouzos is a former president of Panathinaikos F.C.
• Mariza Koch is a singer.
• Spyros Markezinis is a politician.
• Themison of Thera

In popular culture

The movie Summer Lovers (1982) was filmed on location here.

The island was a filming location in the 2005 movie The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants and its follow-up movie.

Santorini inspired French pop singer Nolwenn Leroy to create a song called "Mystère," which was released on her 2005 album Histoires Naturelles ("Aux criques de Santorin").

Australian singer Donny Benét recorded a song named Santorini, which was included in his 2018 album The Don.

The Santorini Film Festival is held every year at the open-air cinema, Cinema Kamari, in Santorini.

American hip hop artist Rick Ross has a song titled Santorini Greece, and the 2017 music video for this song was filmed on the island.

Santorini appears in the 2014 video game Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare during the mission Manhunt. Players track down a target and chase them through the streets.

The 2018 video game Assassin's Creed Odyssey includes a DLC called Fate of Atlantis, where a gateway to the mythical lost city of Atlantis is located in a temple beneath the island of Thera.

The board game Santorini, inspired by the architecture of the island's cliffside villages, was published in 2004 by Gordon Hamilton.

The K-Pop girl group ARTMS had an official photoshoot in Santorini for their 2024 Season's greetings.

In the film The Parting of the Sea: How Volcanoes, Earthquakes, and Plagues Shaped the Exodus Story, geologist Barbara J. Sivertsen tries to connect the eruption of Santorini around 1600 BC to the Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt as described in the Bible.