Romantic music is a type of Western Classical music from the 19th century, known as the Romantic era. It is connected to Romanticism, a larger movement in Western culture that began around 1798 and lasted until 1837. Romantic composers aimed to create music that was personal, emotional, and dramatic. Their work often told stories or described scenes, inspired by nature, literature, poetry, supernatural ideas, or art. This music used more notes outside traditional scales and moved away from older musical forms.

Background

The Romantic movement was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that began in the second half of the 18th century in Europe. It grew stronger as a response to the Industrial Revolution. In part, it was a challenge to the social and political ideas of the Age of Enlightenment and a reaction to the use of science to explain nature. The movement was most visible in visual arts, music, literature, and education. It was also shaped by new discoveries in the study of nature.

One of the first times the term "Romantic" was used to describe music was in 1789, in a book called Mémoires by the French composer André Grétry. Later, E. T. A. Hoffmann helped define the principles of musical Romanticism. He wrote a long review of Ludwig van Beethoven's Fifth Symphony in 1810 and an article in 1813 about Beethoven's instrumental music. In the first of these writings, Hoffmann traced the start of musical Romanticism to the later works of Haydn and Mozart.

Hoffmann combined ideas already linked to the word "Romantic," which was used to contrast with the strict rules of Classical music. This helped raise the importance of music, especially instrumental music, in Romanticism. Music was seen as the best art form for expressing emotions. Through the writings of Hoffmann and other German authors, German music became central to the Romantic movement in music.

Traits

During the Classical period, composers often used short and incomplete musical ideas, while the Romantic period focused more on longer, clearly defined, and emotionally expressive themes.

Characteristics of the Romantic period in music include:
• A new focus on nature and feeling connected to it;
• An interest in the mystical, supernatural, and religious or otherworldly;
• Emphasis on nighttime, ghostly, and frightening imagery;
• Greater attention to the identity of a nation or culture;
• Disapproval of traditional musical rules and patterns;
• More importance placed on melody to keep music interesting;
• Use of more notes that are not in the usual scale;
• Harmonies that move from the main key to other keys, instead of the usual pattern, with more complex harmonic changes (composers like Wagner and Liszt used these changes);
• Large orchestras with many musicians were common;
• More skilled musicians were often highlighted in compositions;
• Use of new musical forms such as the song cycle, nocturne, concert etude, arabesque, and rhapsody, along with traditional forms;
• More use of music that tells a story or describes a scene (program music);
• A wider range of loudness, from very quiet to very loud, made possible by large orchestras;
• Use of the full range of a piano, from its lowest to highest notes.

In music, there is a clear change in style and structure after Beethoven's death. Whether Beethoven is considered a Romantic composer or not, his powerful and wide-ranging music made people feel that the traditional forms of the sonata, symphony, sonata, and string quartet had reached their limits.

Trends of the 19th century

Events and changes in society, such as new ideas, attitudes, discoveries, inventions, and important historical events, often influence music. For example, the Industrial Revolution was happening strongly during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. This event had a big impact on music: improvements were made to mechanical parts of woodwind and brass instruments, such as valves and keys. These new instruments were easier to play and more dependable.

Another change that influenced music was the growth of the middle class. Before this time, composers relied on the support of the aristocracy. Their audiences were small and mostly made up of the upper class and people who knew a lot about music. Romantic composers, however, often wrote music for public concerts and festivals. Their audiences were large and included people who did not necessarily have formal music training. Composers like Elgar showed that music should be accessible to all and that the goal was to create music that could be heard by many.

Music from the Romantic era often focused on the importance of the individual. It was written in ways that were less restricted and more centered on the composer’s personal abilities compared to earlier styles.

During the Romantic period, music often reflected a strong sense of national identity. Composers created works that highlighted their home countries and traditions. For example, Jean Sibelius’ piece Finlandia is seen as representing Finland’s journey toward independence from Russia.

Frédéric Chopin was among the first composers to include nationalistic elements in his music. Joseph Machlis wrote, "Poland’s fight for freedom from Russian rule inspired Chopin to use national themes in his music." His Mazurkas and Polonaises are famous for using rhythms that reflect Polish culture. Additionally, "During World War II, the Nazis banned the performance of Chopin’s Polonaises in Warsaw because of their powerful connection to Polish identity."

Other composers, like Bedřich Smetana, wrote music that described their homeland. Smetana’s Vltava is a symphonic poem about the Moldau River in the Czech Republic. It is part of a series of six nationalistic works titled Má vlast (My Homeland). Smetana also composed eight nationalist operas, all of which are still performed today. These works made him the first and most important Czech opera composer of his generation.

History

The shift from Viennese classicism to Romanticism is clearly seen in the music of Ludwig van Beethoven. His compositions introduced many elements that became central to Romantic music. Unlike vocal music, Beethoven's works are purely instrumental. According to Hoffmann, Beethoven's instrumental music, which avoids specific stories or themes, perfectly represents the Romantic idea of art.

Franz Schubert was another key figure in late classicism and early Romanticism. He brought Romantic ideas into German opera, as well as in his chamber music and symphonies. His work was supported by Carl Loewe’s ballads. Carl Maria von Weber helped shape German opera, especially with his famous opera Freischütz. Heinrich Marschner and Albert Lortzing also contributed, with Marschner writing fantastical stories and Lortzing creating cheerful operas. Louis Spohr was known for his instrumental music. Johann Nepomuk Hummel, Ferdinand Ries, and George Onslow remained closely connected to classical traditions.

In Italy, the Belcanto opera style reached its peak during early Romanticism, linked to composers like Gioachino Rossini, Gaetano Donizetti, and Vincenzo Bellini. Rossini is best known for his comic operas, often remembered for their exciting overtures. Donizetti and Bellini focused more on tragic stories. Niccolò Paganini, called the "devil's violinist," was the most important instrumental composer of this time.

In France, the Opéra comique developed, with composers such as François-Adrien Boieldieu, Daniel-François-Esprit Auber, and Adolphe Adam, who also composed ballets. Robert Nicolas-Charles Bochsa wrote seven operas. The Grand opéra style, known for its grand stage designs, ballets, and large choirs, was pioneered by Gaspare Spontini and later led by Giacomo Meyerbeer.

Other European countries also contributed. John Field, an Irish composer, created the first piano Nocturnes. Friedrich Kuhlau worked in Denmark, and Franz Berwald, a Swede, composed four unique symphonies.

High Romanticism has two main phases. In the first, Romantic music reached its peak. Frédéric Chopin, a Polish composer, explored deep emotions in his piano works. Robert Schumann, who struggled with mental health, became a model for passionate Romantic artists. His piano pieces and symphonies influenced future musicians.

Franz Liszt, a Hungarian composer, was a famous piano virtuoso and helped start the "New German School" with his bold symphonic poems. Hector Berlioz, a French composer, used recurring musical themes called idée fixe and expanded the orchestra. Felix Mendelssohn, more focused on classical forms, inspired Scandinavian composers like Niels Wilhelm Gade.

In opera, Otto Nicolai and Friedrich von Flotow were prominent in Germany before Richard Wagner began writing his Romantic operas. Giuseppe Verdi’s early works followed the Belcanto style. In France, Ambroise Thomas and Charles Gounod developed the Opéra lyrique. In Russia, Mikhail Glinka and Alexander Dargomyzhsky created a unique national style.

The second phase of high Romanticism overlaps with realism in literature and art. Wagner later developed his leitmotif technique, using recurring themes to unify his operas like the Nibelungen Ring. His music used symphonic orchestration and extreme chromaticism in Tristan und Isolde. Many composers, like Peter Cornelius, were influenced by Wagner.

Some composers, like Johannes Brahms, opposed Wagner’s style. Brahms focused on classical forms in his symphonies, chamber music, and songs. Others, such as Robert Volkmann and Max Bruch, also followed this path.

Anton Bruckner, a supporter of Wagner, had a distinct style with organ-like orchestration. Felix Draeseke, influenced by Liszt, worked between opposing musical groups. Verdi developed a powerful style of musical drama, overshadowing other Italian composers. In France, Jacques Offenbach’s operettas were popular, while Jules Massenet and Georges Bizet’s Carmen brought realism to opera. Johann Strauss II’s waltzes and polkas became famous in Austria.

Louis Théodore Gouvy connected French music to Germany. Camille Saint-Saëns, Léo Delibes, and others focused on traditional styles. Édouard Lalo and Emmanuel Chabrier introduced new orchestral colors. César Franck revived organ music, later continued by composers like Charles-Marie Widor.

National Romanticism emerged in most European countries. In Russia, the "Group of Five" continued Glinka’s style. Anton Rubinstein and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, more Western-oriented, gained fame for their ballets and symphonies. Bedřich Smetana started Czech national music with operas and symphonic poems.

Antonín Dvořák modeled his work on Brahms. Stanisław Moniuszko led Polish opera, and Ferenc Erkel did the same in Hungary. Edvard Grieg, Norway’s most famous composer, created lyrical piano works and orchestral pieces like the Peer-Gynt Suite. In England, Hubert Parry and Arthur Sullivan’s operas reflected Brahms’ influence.

In late Romanticism, traditional musical forms became more flexible. Composers used a wider range of orchestral colors, expanded tonality, and expressed intense emotions. Gustav Mahler’s symphonies grew in size, often breaking traditional structures and including vocal parts. This period marked the transition to modern music.

Schools

The New German School was a group of composers and critics led informally by Franz Liszt and Richard Wagner. They aimed to expand the use of complex musical techniques, such as chromatic harmony and program music, which tells a story or conveys an idea, rather than absolute music, which they believed had reached its full potential under Ludwig van Beethoven.

This group also supported the creation of new musical forms, including the symphonic poem, which uses a single theme to develop a narrative, and the use of thematic transformation, where musical ideas are altered throughout a piece. They also encouraged changes in how music was structured and sounded.

Important members of this movement included the critic Richard Pohl and composers Felix Draeseke, Julius Reubke, Karl Klindworth, William Mason, and Peter Cornelius.

The conservatives were a larger group of musicians and critics who valued the musical traditions of Robert Schumann. They believed in continuing the classical style of symphonies, as developed by Ludwig van Beethoven, but with their own unique musical expressions.

Key members of this group were Johannes Brahms, Joseph Joachim, Clara Schumann, and the Leipzig Conservatoire, which was established by Felix Mendelssohn.

The Mighty Five were a group of Russian composers based in Saint Petersburg who worked together from 1856 to 1870 to create a unique style of classical music that reflected Russian culture. They often disagreed with Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, who preferred a style more similar to Western European music.

This group was led by Mily Balakirev and included César Cui, Modest Mussorgsky, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, and Alexander Borodin.

The Belyayev circle was a group of Russian musicians in Saint Petersburg who met from 1885 to 1908. They aimed to continue the national Russian style of classical music inspired by the Mighty Five but were more open to the Western-style compositions of Tchaikovsky.

This group was founded by Mitrofan Belyayev, a Russian music publisher and philanthropist. The most important composers in the group were Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov and Alexander Glazunov. Other members included Vladimir Stasov, Anatoly Lyadov, Alexander Ossovsky, Witold Maliszewski, Nikolai Tcherepnin, Nikolay Sokolov, and Alexander Winkler.

Transition to Modernism

During the second half of the 1800s, some important composers started to push the boundaries of the traditional musical system based on notes and keys. Key examples include Tristan und Isolde by Richard Wagner and Bagatelle sans tonalité by Franz Liszt. This development reached its peak during the end of the Romantic era, when composers like Gustav Mahler used progressive tonality, a technique that gradually shifts musical keys. Early works by Arnold Schoenberg and Anton Webern also showed this change. These changes caused Romanticism to break apart, leading to the rise of several new artistic styles.

Two major movements that emerged in response to Romanticism’s decline were Expressionism, led by Arnold Schoenberg and the Second Viennese School, and Primitivism, most strongly influenced by Igor Stravinsky.

Genres

Ludwig van Beethoven helped make the symphony the most respected form of music. Many composers, such as Franz Schubert, Felix Mendelssohn, Robert Schumann, Camille Saint-Saëns, and Johannes Brahms, followed Beethoven’s style closely. Others, like Hector Berlioz, created music that went beyond Beethoven’s ideas, either in form or spirit.

Some composers used their symphonies to tell stories. Franz Liszt created a new type of music called the symphonic poem, which is usually one movement long and inspired by themes, characters, or literary works. This style uses a recurring musical theme, called a leitmotiv, to connect ideas, similar to how a symphony might have a program or story.

The symphonic poem appeared during the Romantic period, when the piano evolved from the pianoforte. The lied is a type of vocal music often accompanied by the piano, with lyrics taken from Romantic poems. This style allows singers to express emotions deeply. Franz Schubert, known for his song Erlkönig, was one of the first famous composers of lieder. Others who wrote lieder include Saint-Saëns, Duparc, Schumann, Brahms, Hugo Wolf, Gustav Mahler, and Richard Strauss.

Beethoven introduced the Romantic concerto with his five piano concertos and one violin concerto, which still showed elements of classical music. Many composers followed his example, and the concerto became as important as the symphony in orchestral music. The concerto also gave instrumentalists, like Niccolò Paganini on the violin and Frédéric Chopin, Robert Schumann, and Franz Liszt on the piano, a chance to show their skill.

A rhapsody is a single-movement piece that is free-flowing and has many contrasting moods, colors, and tones. It feels like it was created spontaneously, making it more flexible than a set of variations. Franz Liszt’s Hungarian Rhapsodies, especially No. 2, are famous examples.

A nocturne is a short, intimate piece often written for piano. John Field, an Irish composer, was one of the first to create nocturnes. These pieces usually have an ABA structure, with a flowing melody and intricate left-hand patterns. The tempo is slow, and the middle section is often more intense. Frédéric Chopin wrote 21 nocturnes between 1827 and 1846, first publishing them in groups like Opus 9 and Opus 15.

During the 19th century, Romantic ballet became popular, especially in Russia and France. Composers like Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (The Nutcracker, Swan Lake) and Léo Delibes (Coppélia) helped shape this style.

Romanticism influenced opera, with Paris becoming a major center. French composers such as Luigi Cherubini, Gaspare Spontini, François-Adrien Boieldieu, and Daniel-François-Esprit Auber created many Romantic operas. Giacomo Meyerbeer’s works marked the peak of this style, while Hector Berlioz’s Les Troyens and Charles Gounod’s Faust became well-known.

Georges Bizet’s Carmen revolutionized opera with its use of Spanish music and dances. Other composers, like Léo Delibes (Lakmé) and Camille Saint-Saëns (Samson and Dalila), also focused on local themes. Jules Massenet, a productive French composer, wrote operas such as Manon, Werther, and Thaïs.

Jacques Offenbach, known for Les Contes d'Hoffmann, helped create the French operetta, a lighter form of opera.

By the early 20th century, Romanticism in France gave way to styles like Impressionism, led by composers such as Claude Debussy (Pelléas and Mélisande).

Carl Maria von Weber’s Der Freischütz (1821) was the first German Romantic opera, while Beethoven’s Fidelio (1805) was his only opera.

Richard Wagner introduced the leitmotiv and "cyclical melody" in his operas, changing how music was written. His Tetralogy and the concept of "musical drama" made the orchestra a central part of opera. The Bayreuth Festival, created in 1876, focused on performing Wagner’s works. Wagner’s influence continued in operas like Hänsel und Gretel by Engelbert Humperdinck. Richard Strauss later used Wagner’s techniques in Salome and Elektra, while Der Rosenkavalier became a major success.

In Italy, Gioachino Rossini began the Romantic era with works like The Barber of Seville and La Cenerentola, creating the "bel canto" style. This style was later used by Vincenzo Bellini and Gaetano Donizetti. Giuseppe Verdi, however, became the most famous Italian composer, with works like Nabucco, Rigoletto, Il trovatore, La traviata, Otello, and Falstaff.

In the late 19th century, Giacomo Puccini, Verdi’s successor, moved opera toward verism, a style focused on realism. His operas, such as La Bohème, Tosca, Madame Butterfly, and Turandot, are known for their emotional depth.

Other national styles include:
– In Russia, composers like Mikhail Glinka (A Life for the Tsar, Ruslan and Ludmila), Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov (Sadko), Alexander Borodin (Prince Igor), Modest Mussorgsky (Boris Godunov), and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (Eugene Onegin, The Queen of Spades) developed a national school.
– In the Czech Republic, Bedřich Smetana (The Bartered Bride), Antonín Dvořák (Rusalka), Zdeněk Fibich (Šárka), and Leoš Janáček (Jenůfa) created music rooted in Czech culture.
– In Great Britain, Michael William Balfe composed The Bohemian Girl, a famous example of British Romantic opera.