In history, a rake (short for rakehell, similar to "hellraiser") was a man known for acting in ways that went against what was considered right, especially by being unfaithful to women. Often, a rake was also wasteful, spending his (usually inherited) money on gambling, alcohol, women, and music, which led to large debts. A related term is "cad." Other similar words include "libertine" and "debauché."
During the English Restoration period (1660–1688), under King Charles II, the rake was seen as a carefree, clever, and attractive member of the aristocracy. These men were most popular during this time and were part of a group called the "Merry Gang," which included important figures like John Wilmot, George Villiers, and Charles Sackville. These men lived extravagantly while also supporting the arts and intellectual work. At this time, rakes were common characters in plays from the Restoration era.
After King Charles II's reign, especially following the Glorious Revolution of 1688, people began to view rakes more negatively. Stories about rakes often showed them facing harsh consequences, such as being sent to debtors' prison, suffering from sexually transmitted diseases, or, as shown in William Hogarth's artwork A Rake's Progress, ending up in Bedlam (a place for people with mental illnesses) due to madness.
In history
The most important time for the rake was during the court of King Charles II in the late 1600s. Poet Andrew Marvell called this group the "Merry Gang." Its members included King Charles, George Villiers, John Wilmot, Charles Sedley, Charles Sackville, and playwrights William Wycherley and George Etherege. These men followed the example of the king by enjoying drinking, spending time with women, and having clever conversations. John Wilmot, the Earl of Rochester, was especially known for his wit.
Many of these men often gambled and got into fights. Some were involved in duels, but King Charles did not approve of this practice. One notable event was when Sedley and Sackville stood naked on an alehouse balcony in Covent Garden and acted out a scene of intimacy while speaking to a crowd. A troubling event was when Buckingham killed Francis Talbot in a duel over Talbot’s wife. In 1682, Thomas Wharton entered a church at night and urinated on the communion table and in the pulpit.
In the 1700s, another group of aristocratic rakes was connected to the Hellfire Club. This group included Francis Dashwood and John Wilkes. Other well-known rakes from different times were Francis Charteris, Alessandro Cagliostro, Lord Byron, Jimi Arundell, John Mytton, Giacomo Casanova, Charles Mohun, the Marquis de Sade, Robert Fielding, and Beauchamp Bagenal.
In restoration comedy
Restoration comedies often feature characters known as rakes, who can be divided into two groups: those who change their behavior (penitent rakes) and those who continue their immoral actions (persistent rakes). Penitent rakes are reformed by the heroine, while persistent rakes keep their reckless habits. Characters in both the satirical group and satirical scenes may display behaviors such as sexual immorality, alcohol abuse, wandering without purpose, cheating, and gambling. The level of wit determines whether a rakish gentleman, called a Truewit, is closer to the satirical group or a Falsewit, who is always criticized in satirical scenes. A rake’s reason for changing his behavior is either dishonest (Falsewits) or genuine (Truewits). Penitent Falsewits stop their reckless behavior only for financial reasons, while penitent Truewits are often influenced by the heroine’s wit and may pretend to promise loyalty.
Another way to classify rakes is by social class and style. A "polite rake" is a well-mannered, witty, and wealthy man who dominates social events, unlike a "debauch," a contemptible character who engages in immoral acts like cheating, drinking, and lying.
Other classifications focus on how rakes behave. They fall into three groups: extravagant, vicious, and philosophical libertines.
An extravagant rake lives a wild, anti-social lifestyle but eventually marries. Examples include characters from plays written between 1663 and 1668, such as Wellbred in The English Mounsieur and Philidor in All Mistaken, and later in the 1690s, Sir Harry Wildair in The Constant Couple. These rakes are promiscuous, impulsive, and enjoy having fun. They often marry women who are equally wild and witty. Though exaggerated in their behavior, they are not foolish.
A vicious rake is a wealthy, despicable character who schemes and mistreats his wife. Examples include Pinchwife in The Country Wife and Sir John Brute in The Provoked Wife.
A philosophical rake is the most appealing type. He is self-controlled, behaves politely, and manipulates others. His immoral tendencies do not drive the story’s humor but reflect serious ideas about pleasure and cynicism. This type of character appears in plays like The Country Wife and The Man of Mode. Characters such as Horner and Dorimant, as well as Rodophil and Palamede in Marriage-a-la-Mode, represent this group.
These plays are not typical of Restoration comedies. Most comedies end with the reform of a typical rake, who marries. However, if a rake continues his immoral behavior, it is unclear whether he plays a major role in the play’s satire. For example, Dorimant in Etherege’s play is not truly reformed by Harriet, and Horner in Wycherley’s play is not punished.
The philosophical rake’s beliefs challenge strict moral standards and Puritan values. These ideas were influenced by Thomas Hobbes, though not all comedies reflected his philosophy. Dryden used Hobbesian ideas in his tragedies, but they were only shown in villains.
Philosophical rakes value pleasure, follow Epicurean ideas, and reject strict rules. They are anti-authoritarian and anti-traditional, similar to later geniuses. Their emotional distance from their actions and the harm they cause makes them frightening.
Critics began to oppose rakes in the 1670s, especially in plays about sex. One argument was the need for "poetic justice," which required rakes to be punished or reformed by the end of a play. Shadwell and Dryden argued that rakes must change to restore moral standards. If a persistent rake was not punished, it could harm the play’s message. Shadwell’s Epsom Wells ended with a divorce instead of a marriage, showing a lack of reform.
Despite this, many persistent rakes continued to appear, especially in plays with themes of infidelity. By the late 1680s, critics pushed authors to return to traditional morals. In 1688, Shadwell’s Squire of Alsatia emphasized moral lessons in comedy, as earlier suggested in The Humorist.
Over time, plays focused less on rakes’ adventures and more on their reform. Works like Love for Money (1691) and Love’s Last Shift (1696) promoted moral lessons, paving the way for sentimental comedies in the early 18th century.
In modern literature
The 19th and early 20th century replacement for the rake was the Cad, famously portrayed in movies by Terry-Thomas. Though appearing as a gentleman, this wealthy villain aimed to harm the young heroine. Known as the Dastardly Whiplash, the Cad of the silent film era was identified by his curly mustache, ivory cigarette holder, pinky ring, and shiny shoes. He often held titles like Sir or Lord from British aristocracy, though French and American Cads also appeared.
If working, the Cad might serve as an army officer, gambler, hunter, billiards player, actor, politician, or aviator in stories set during World War I. He frequently employed a servant from the criminal class, such as a manservant, coachman, or chauffeur. The servant might have been from a family of long-time workers for the Cad’s family, share his love for trouble, or be unpleasant enough that no proper family would hire him. If the servant failed the Cad’s plans, he was often beaten with a whip.
Common behaviors of the Cad included cheating on spouses, threatening others, having secret relationships, marrying for money (often illegally), cheating at games, and shining his shoes to peek at women’s skirts. If the Cad failed to trick a young heiress into losing her money, he might resort to kidnapping, murder, or forced marriage, often with help from a dishonest priest.
When faced by the hero, the Cad usually fled instead of fighting. Well-known fictional Cads include Harry Paget Flashman, George Wickham from Pride and Prejudice, James Steerforth from David Copperfield, Charles Augustus Milverton from The Return of Sherlock Holmes, Woodley from The Adventure of the Solitary Cyclist, Barkis Bittern from Corpse Bride, Victor Quatermain from Curse of the Were-Rabbit, and Count Olaf from A Series of Unfortunate Events.
This character type continues in modern romance novels, such as those by Jilly Cooper, including the initial love interest in her book Imogen.