Otello (Italian pronunciation: [oˈtɛllo]) is an opera in four acts written by Giuseppe Verdi, with an Italian libretto by Arrigo Boito. It is based on Shakespeare's play Othello. Otello was Verdi's second-to-last opera and first performed at the Teatro alla Scala in Milan on February 5, 1887.

After the success of his opera Aida in 1871, Verdi was hesitant to create new works and chose to retire. His Milan publisher, Giulio Ricordi, spent the next ten years trying to persuade Verdi to return. Ricordi first encouraged Verdi to revise his 1857 opera Simon Boccanegra by introducing Boito as the librettist. Later, Ricordi worked to convince Verdi to review Boito's completed libretto for Otello, which Boito finished in July or August 1881. However, the process of writing and revising the libretto took many years, and Verdi did not promise to work on it. Composition began in 1884, five years after the first drafts of the libretto were created, and most of the work was completed by late 1885. When Otello premiered in Milan on February 5, 1887, it was a great success. Soon after, the opera was performed at major theaters across Europe and America.

Composition history

After finishing and performing his opera Aida in December 1871, Verdi decided to retire from writing operas, similar to how Rossini had retired after completing his opera William Tell. At the time, Verdi was the most famous and possibly the wealthiest composer in Italy. However, Verdi’s sixties were difficult years. As noted by music expert Julian Budden, Verdi seemed unhappy and wrote many letters complaining about Italian theaters, politics, and music, which he believed were being negatively influenced by German styles.

Because of the popularity of Verdi’s music in the 1870s, his publisher, Giulio Ricordi, believed Verdi’s retirement would be a loss for both talent and profits. Ricordi and others tried to convince Verdi to return to writing operas. Verdi was very selective about the stories he chose for his operas, so any new work would need to interest him deeply.

During the search for a story for Aida, Ricordi discovered a partly finished libretto (the text of an opera) for Boito’s opera Nerone and suggested Verdi set it to music. Verdi ignored the idea. Ricordi tried again in 1871, sending a copy of a libretto for Amleto by Boito’s friend, Franco Faccio. This also did not work. Ricordi continued trying in different ways, even as Verdi responded with letters that showed he was not interested.

Verdi refused to write new operas throughout the 1870s. Ricordi tried to persuade him by suggesting an opera for soprano Adelina Patti, but Verdi declined. Ricordi also asked Verdi’s wife, Giuseppina, to encourage him, but she said she could not. In 1878, Clara Maffei tried to interest Verdi, but he replied, “For what reason should I write? What would I succeed in doing?”

In 1879, Ricordi tried to get Verdi to revise his opera Simon Boccanegra, a suggestion he had made ten years earlier. Verdi refused again, saying the 1857 score would remain unchanged. Ricordi also proposed a collaboration with Boito for an opera based on Shakespeare’s Othello. Verdi admired Shakespeare’s plays and had once tried to write an opera based on Macbeth, but it was not well received when performed in Paris. Because Othello had a clear story, it was considered a good choice.

Verdi’s earlier work with Boito on revising Simon Boccanegra helped Ricordi and others believe Boito was a skilled librettist. Music expert Roger Parker suggests Verdi wanted to test working with Boito before taking on a larger project. Frank Walker notes that parts of the revised Boccanegra, such as scenes in the Council Chamber, showed similarities to the later Othello opera.

In June 1879, Verdi conducted his Requiem Mass in a benefit performance at La Scala in Milan. The public cheered for him, and the orchestra even played outside his hotel. Music expert Frank Walker believes Ricordi and Faccio arranged these events to make Verdi feel respected in Milan.

Finally, in 1879, Ricordi, with help from Verdi’s friend Franco Faccio, suggested writing an opera based on Othello. During a dinner at Verdi’s home, they discussed Shakespeare’s play and Boito, whom Ricordi claimed was also a fan. Ricordi asked Verdi to visit Sant’Agata with a friend in September. Verdi responded noncommittally, saying, “I wish absolutely to avoid committing myself […] The best thing … is for him to send me the finished poem.”

Boito began working on the libretto despite being ill and sent a copy by late October. Giuseppina told Ricordi the Verdis would visit Milan, and Verdi would meet Boito privately. She noted in a letter that Verdi seemed pleased with what Boito had written so far.

At this time, the opera was called Iago instead of Otello because of a theater tradition: new operas usually have new titles rather than using one already in the repertoire, like Rossini’s Otello.

The process of writing and revising the libretto took many years, with Verdi not making any promises. Music expert Frank Walker notes that by late 1881, Verdi received the text of the third act’s finale and wrote a detailed letter about its structure and other issues. Little progress happened in 1882 and 1883, though Verdi and Boito met in Genoa during the winter of 1883. Ricordi sent Verdi a chocolate cake with a figure of the Moor on top for three Christmases in a row, possibly leading to the project being called “chocolate” for many years.

In early 1884, Verdi began composing Othello. On March 20, 1884, Boito told Ricordi that Verdi had started with the first act and was working with “fervor.” However, an event nearly stopped the project: during a banquet in Naples, Boito gave an interview that was misquoted by a journalist. The journalist claimed Boito wanted to compose the music for Othello himself, which upset Verdi. This caused tension between Verdi and Boito and nearly ended the project.

Performance history

As the Italian public learned that the retired composer Giuseppe Verdi was writing another opera, many people began to guess what it would be. At the same time, many famous conductors, singers, and opera-house managers in Europe wanted to be part of the first performance of Otello, even though Faccio had already been chosen as the conductor and La Scala in Milan had been selected as the venue. The two main male characters were also chosen: Francesco Tamagno, Italy's most famous dramatic tenor, would sing the role of Otello, and Victor Maurel, a respected French singing-actor, would play Iago, the villain. Romilda Pantaleoni, a well-known singing-actress, was chosen to perform the role of Desdemona.

After the opera was completed, the first performance was prepared in complete secrecy. Verdi kept the right to cancel the premiere even at the last moment. He was especially worried about Tamagno's softer singing, though he was satisfied with the strength of Tamagno's voice in dramatic parts of the score.

Verdi did not need to worry: the first performance of Otello was very successful. The audience showed their excitement by giving Verdi 20 curtain calls at the end of the opera. Soon after, Otello was performed at major theaters across Europe and America.

The opera was first performed in the United States at the Academy of Music in New York on April 16, 1888, and in the United Kingdom in London on July 5, 1889. In Vienna, the opera was first performed on March 14, 1888, with Hermann Winkelmann singing the role of Otello. Winkelmann had previously played the title role in Wagner’s Parsifal in 1882.

Otello was first performed in Buenos Aires, Argentina, in 1888 by two opera companies. The casts included singers who had performed in the world premiere in Milan the year before. On June 12, 1888, the opera was performed at the Teatro Politeama by the Ciacchi opera company, featuring Roberto Stagno as Otello, Romilda Pantaleoni as Desdemona, and Delfino Menotti as Iago. A few days later, on July 6, 1888, the Ferrari opera company performed the opera at the old Teatro Colón, with Francesco Tamagno as Otello, Mila Kupfer-Berger as Desdemona, and Jules Devoyod as Iago.

The Paris premiere of Otello took place at the Palais Garnier on October 12, 1894, with Albert Saléza as Otello, Rose Caron as Desdemona, and Paul Taffanel conducting. The opera was performed in a French translation by Arrigo Boito and Camille Du Locle. Verdi composed a short ballet for the finale of Act 3, which showed the ceremony welcoming the Venetian ambassadors. The production was directed by Alexandre Lapissida, the costumes were designed by Charles Bianchini, and the sets were created by Marcel Jambon (Act I), Amable and Eugène Gardy (Act II), Eugène Carpezat (Act III), and Auguste Alfred Rubé and Philippe Chaperon (Act IV).

Today, Otello is often performed worldwide and is a common part of the standard opera repertoire.

The three main roles—Otello, Desdemona, and Iago—are among Verdi’s most challenging, requiring both strong singing and dramatic acting. Many famous singers over the past 130 years have performed these roles. Notable performers of Otello include Tamagno, the role’s original singer, as well as Giovanni Battista De Negri, Albert Alvarez, Francesc Viñas, Giuseppe Borgatti, Antonio Paoli, Giovanni Zenatello, Renato Zanelli, Giovanni Martinelli, Aureliano Pertile, Francesco Merli, Giacomo Lauri-Volpi, Frank Mullings, Leo Slezak, Jose Luccioni, Ramón Vinay, Mario Del Monaco, James McCracken, Jon Vickers, David Rendall, Jeffrey Lawton, and Carlo Cossutta. Pre-World War II Wagnerian tenors such as Jacques Urlus, Heinrich Knote, Alexander Kirchner, Lauritz Melchior, and Franz Völker also performed the role, usually in German. The Russian tenor Ivan Yershov was a well-known Otello in his home country before World War I. His fellow countryman Arnold Azrikan gained fame as a dramatic tenor in Otello and was awarded the Stalin Prize in 1946. Enrico Caruso was studying Otello when he died suddenly in 1921, which prevented the New York Metropolitan Opera from staging the opera as a new performance for its star tenor.

Currently, Plácido Domingo has appeared in more video recordings of Otello than any other tenor. He has also recorded the complete role on CD and performed it in many stage productions around the world. In his book My First Forty Years, Domingo wrote about different ways of singing the role of Otello over the years.

Many famous baritones have performed the role of Iago since 1887. These include Victor Maurel, the role’s first performer, as well as Mattia Battistini, Mario Ancona, Antonio Scotti, Titta Ruffo, Pasquale Amato, Carlo Galeffi, and Lawrence Tibbett. Notable post-war performers of Iago include Giuseppe Valdengo, Leonard Warren, Robert Merrill, Tito Gobbi, Sherrill Milnes, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, and James Morris. Many lyric sopranos have also performed the role of Desdemona since 1887, including Renata Tebaldi (1954), Leonie Rysanek (1960), Gwyneth Jones (1968), Mirella Freni (1974), Kiri Te Kanawa (1974), Margaret Price (1977), Renata Scotto (1978), Katia Ricciarelli (1985), Cheryl Studer (1993), Renée Fleming (1996), and Sonya Yoncheva (2015).

For many years, it was common for white singers to wear dark makeup when playing Otello. The Metropolitan Opera stopped this practice in 2015. Some people say using dark makeup for the character is a matter of costume design, not a true example of racist blackface. The Metropolitan Opera’s decision led to calls for more people of color to be cast in operas.

Synopsis

A town in Cyprus, outside the castle. An inn with a pergola, in the background the quayside and sea. It is evening. Lightning, thunder, very strong winds.

On a stormy evening, the people of Cyprus wait nervously for the arrival of the new governor, Otello, from a naval battle with the Turks (Chorus, Montano, Cassio, Iago, Roderigo: Una vela! / "A sail!"). For a moment, it seems as if Otello's ship might sink, which makes Iago, Otello's treacherous ensign, happy, but Otello arrives safely and announces that the Turkish fleet has been destroyed, and the Cypriots cheer (Otello, chorus: Esultate! L'orgoglio musulmano sepolto è in mar / "Rejoice! The Muslim’s pride is buried in the sea").

Iago offers to help the young Venetian gentleman Roderigo in his attempt to win Otello's wife, Desdemona. Iago is jealous of Otello's success and wants to harm him (Iago, Roderigo: Roderigo, ebben che pensi? / "Well, Roderigo, what are you thinking?"). Iago is angry that Otello chose Cassio to be the captain of the navy, a position Iago wanted. The people of Cyprus celebrate Otello's return by lighting a bonfire and drinking (Chorus: Fuoco di gioia! / "Fire of joy").

Iago proposes a toast to Otello and his wife, while Cassio praises Desdemona (Iago, Cassio, Chorus, Roderigo: Roderigo, beviam! / "Roderigo, let's drink!"). Iago offers Cassio more wine, but Cassio says he has had enough. Iago pressures him and offers a toast to Otello and Desdemona. Cassio gives in. Iago sings a drinking song and continues to pour Cassio wine (Iago, Cassio, Roderigo, chorus: Inaffia l'ugola! / "Wet your throat").

Montano enters and tells Cassio to begin his watch. He is surprised to find Cassio drunk and barely able to stand. Iago lies to Montano, saying this is how Cassio spends every evening. Roderigo laughs at Cassio's drunkenness, and Cassio attacks him. Montano tells Cassio to calm down, but Cassio draws his sword and threatens to hurt Montano (Montano, Cassio, Iago, Roderigo, chorus: Capitano, v'attende la fazione ai baluardi / "Captain, the guard awaits you on the ramparts"). Cassio and Montano begin to fight, and Iago sends Roderigo to call for help. Montano is wounded, and the fight stops when Otello arrives.

Otello orders Montano and Cassio to lower their swords. He then asks "honest Iago" to explain how the fight began, but Iago says he does not know. Otello turns to Cassio, who is embarrassed and cannot explain his actions. When Otello learns that Montano is wounded, he becomes angry. Desdemona enters, and Otello, seeing that his bride's rest has been disturbed, says Cassio is no longer captain (Otello, Iago, Cassio, Montano: Abbasso le spade / "Down with your swords"). Otello tells Iago to patrol the town to restore quiet, calls for help for Montano, and orders everyone to return to their homes.

The Cypriots leave Otello alone with Desdemona. Together, Otello and Desdemona remember why they fell in love. Otello, filled with joy, says he would welcome death, fearing he will never feel such happiness again. Desdemona prays their love will stay the same. They kiss, showing their deep love for each other (Otello, Desdemona: Già nella notte densa s'estingue ogni clamor / "Now in the dark night all noise is silenced").

A hall on the ground floor of the castle, divided by a glass partition from the garden at the back, with a balcony.

Iago suggests to Cassio that he should ask Desdemona to speak to Otello about his demotion, as she might help him get his position back (Iago, Cassio: Non ti crucciar / "Do not fret"). Desdemona and Emilia walk in the garden. Cassio approaches Desdemona. Watching from the room, Iago expresses his belief that humans are cruel and life is meaningless (Credo in un Dio crudel / "I believe in a cruel God").

Otello enters the room. Iago pretends not to notice him and says he is troubled. Cassio sees Otello from afar and leaves quietly. Otello asks what is wrong, but Iago gives vague answers. Finally, Iago hints that Cassio and Desdemona are having an affair. Otello becomes suspicious but says he needs proof before believing Desdemona is unfaithful (Iago, Otello: Ciò m'accora… Che parli? / "That worries me…" "What did you say?"). Iago warns Otello about jealousy but tells him to stay watchful.

A crowd of children, sailors, and Cypriots sings to Desdemona, praising her beauty and purity (Chorus, Iago, children, Desdemona, Otello: Dove guardi splendono raggi / "Wherever you look, brightness shines…"). They give her gifts and wish her happiness before leaving.

Desdemona brings Cassio's request for reinstatement to Otello. Otello rudely tells her to ask again later. When she keeps asking, he says he has a headache. Desdemona offers to wrap his head with a handkerchief Otello once gave her, embroidered with strawberries. Otello throws it to the ground and says he does not need it (Desdemona, Otello: D'un uom che geme sotto il tuo disdegno la preghiera ti porto / "I bring a petition from one who suffers under your displeasure"). Emilia picks up the handkerchief. Desdemona asks for Otello's forgiveness. Iago secretly asks Emilia for the handkerchief. When she refuses, Iago takes it from her.

Otello sends the others away and says he now believes Desdemona may be unfaithful (Otello: Ora e per sempre addio sante memorie / "Now and forever farewell, holy memories"). Iago returns, and Otello demands proof of Desdemona's infidelity. Iago says he once heard Cassio mention Desdemona in a dream, saying they must hide their love. Iago also says he saw Cassio with the strawberry-embroidered handkerchief. Otello vows to punish Desdemona and Cassio, and Iago agrees (Otello, Iago: Sì, pel ciel marmoreo giuro / "Yes, by the marble heavens I swear").

The great hall of the castle. To the right, a large colonnade leading to a smaller hall, in the back of which is a balcony. Otello and Iago are talking in the hall when a herald enters.

A herald brings news that ambassadors from Venice are arriving. Iago tells Otello he will bring Cassio here and talk with him while Otello watches from hiding. He leaves to get Cassio (Iago: Qui trarrò Cassio / "Here I will bring Cassio").

Desdemona enters and reminds Otello of Cassio's request. Otello says he has a headache. Desdemona offers to wrap his head with the handkerchief, but Otello

Ballet

In 1894, Verdi created a short ballet for a French version of Otello. The ballet happens during the third act and comes before Lodovico enters. It is not often performed when the opera is shown.

Instrumentation

Otello uses these instruments:

• 3 flutes (one flute can also play the piccolo),
• 2 oboes,
• 1 English horn,
• 2 clarinets,
• 1 bass clarinet,
• 4 bassoons,
• 4 horns,
• 2 cornets,
• 2 trumpets,
• 3 trombones,
• 1 trombone basso,
• 1 harp,
• percussion (timpani, cymbals, bass drum, gong, thunder machine),
• strings (violin I and II, viola, cello, double bass).

• 6 trumpets,
• 4 trombones,
• organ,
• bagpipes,
• mandolins,
• guitars.