Mumtaz Mahal (pronounced [mum.ˈtɑːz ma.ˈhal] in Persian), meaning "The Exalted One of the Palace," was the empress of the Mughal Empire from 1628 to 1631. She was the main wife of Shah Jahan, the fifth Mughal emperor. The Taj Mahal in Agra, often called one of the Wonders of the World, was built by Shah Jahan as her tomb.

Mumtaz Mahal was born Arjumand Banu Begum in Agra to a family of Persian nobles. Her father was Abu'l-Hasan Asaf Khan, a wealthy Persian noble who held important positions in the Mughal Empire. She was also the niece of Empress Nur Jahan, the main wife of Emperor Jahangir. Arjumand Banu married Prince Khurram, who later became Shah Jahan, in 1612. He gave her the name "Mumtaz Mahal." Though they were promised to marry in 1607, they married in 1612.

Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan had 14 children, including Jahanara Begum, Shah Jahan’s favorite daughter, and Dara Shikoh, the crown prince. Dara Shikoh was the heir to the throne until he was removed from power by Mumtaz Mahal’s sixth child, Aurangzeb, who later became the sixth Mughal emperor in 1658.

Mumtaz Mahal died on 17 June 1631 in Burhanpur, Deccan (now part of Madhya Pradesh), during the birth of her 14th child, a daughter named Gauhar Ara Begum. Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal to honor her. No pictures of her from her lifetime are known, but artists created imagined portraits starting in the 19th century.

Family and early life

Mumtaz Mahal was born on April 27, 1593, in Agra, India. Her birth name was Arjumand Banu. She was the daughter of Abu'l-Hasan Asaf Khan and Diwanji Begum, who was the daughter of Khwaja Ghias-ud-din of Qazvin, a Persian noble. Asaf Khan was a wealthy Persian noble who held important positions in the Mughal Empire. His family moved to India in 1577 when his father, Mirza Ghias Beg (known as I'timad-ud-Daulah), joined the service of Emperor Akbar in Agra.

Asaf Khan was the older brother of Empress Nur Jahan, making Mumtaz Mahal his niece. Later, she became the stepdaughter-in-law of Nur Jahan, who was the wife of Emperor Jahangir, the father of Emperor Shah Jahan. Mumtaz had an older sister named Parwar Khanum, who married Sheikh Farid, the son of Nawab Qutubuddin Koka, the governor of Badaun. Nawab Qutubuddin Koka was also Emperor Jahangir’s foster brother. Mumtaz also had a brother named Shaista Khan, who served as the governor of Bengal and other provinces during Shah Jahan’s rule.

Mumtaz Mahal was known for her intelligence and cultural knowledge. She was skilled in Arabic and Persian and could write poems in Persian. She was respected for being both modest and honest, and she was described as calm and confident even in unexpected situations. During her teenage years, she gained the attention of important people in the empire. Emperor Jahangir likely learned of her talents, which is why he agreed to the marriage between Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal.

Marriage

Mumtaz Mahal was engaged to Shah Jahan around April 5, 1607, when she was 14 years old and he was 15. They married five years later, on May 10 or June 7, 1612, in Agra. After their wedding, Shah Jahan gave her the title Mumtaz Mahal, which means "the exalted one of the Palace" in Persian, because he believed she was the most outstanding woman of her time in appearance and character. Between their engagement and marriage, Shah Jahan had already married his first wife, Princess Kandahari Begum, in 1610. Later, in 1617, after marrying Mumtaz, he married a third wife, Izz-un-Nissa Begum (titled Akbarabadi Mahal), the daughter of a respected Mughal court official. Official court historians noted that these marriages were political alliances.

Shah Jahan was deeply devoted to Mumtaz Mahal. He rarely used his right to have other wives, except to have children with each. According to court chronicler Motamid Khan, as recorded in Iqbal Namah-e-Jahangiri, Shah Jahan’s relationships with his other wives were "only formal, with no close connection." His historian, Inayat Khan, wrote that Shah Jahan’s "entire happiness was focused on Mumtaz Mahal, and he felt only a tiny fraction of the affection for his other wives."

Mumtaz Mahal shared a loving marriage with Shah Jahan. Poets praised her beauty, grace, and kindness during her lifetime. Despite having many children, she traveled with Shah Jahan’s group during his early military campaigns and during a rebellion against his father. She was his close companion and trusted advisor. Court historians recorded details about the couple’s close and affectionate relationship. Over 19 years of marriage, they had 14 children together (eight sons and six daughters), seven of whom died at birth or very young.

Mughal empress

When Shah Jahan became emperor in 1628 after defeating his half-brother, Shahryar Mirza, he named Mumtaz as his chief empress. He gave her several titles, including "Padshah Begum" (First Lady or Queen of the Great), "Malika-i-Jahan" (Queen of the World), "Malika-uz-Zamani" (Queen of the Age), and "Malika-i-Hindustan" (Queen of Hindustan). Mumtaz’s time as empress lasted only three years, as she died young. Despite this, Shah Jahan gave her many luxurious gifts. She was the only wife of Shah Jahan to be called "Hazrat," a title reserved for the mother of the heir to the throne. For example, her residence, the Khas Mahal in Agra Fort, was uniquely decorated with gold, precious stones, and rose-water fountains. Each of Shah Jahan’s wives received a monthly allowance for expenses; Mumtaz Mahal received the highest recorded amount, one million rupees per year. In addition, Shah Jahan gave her lands and properties that provided significant income.

Shah Jahan often sought Mumtaz’s advice on both personal and political matters. She was his close confidant and trusted adviser, holding great political power. Like her aunt, Nur Jahan, who had been the chief wife of Emperor Jahangir, Mumtaz sat beside Shah Jahan in the Hall of Private Audience and Hall of Public Audience. She remained hidden behind a curtain; if she disagreed with a decision, she would signal him by placing her hand on his back. At her request, Shah Jahan would forgive enemies or reduce punishments. His trust in her was so strong that he gave her the imperial seal, the Mehr Uzaz, which was used to approve official orders. Without her approval, no action could be taken. Mumtaz was described as not seeking political power, unlike her aunt, Nur Jahan, who had held significant influence during her time.

Mumtaz had a strong influence on Shah Jahan, often helping the poor and disadvantaged. She enjoyed watching performances such as elephant and combat fights for the court. She also supported poets, scholars, and other talented individuals. A Sanskrit poet named Vansidhara Mishra was one of her favorites. With the help of her lady-in-waiting, Sati-un-Nissa, Mumtaz provided financial support to the daughters of poor scholars, theologians, and pious men. In the Mughal Empire, noble women often funded architectural projects. Mumtaz contributed to the creation of a riverside garden in Agra, now called Zahara Bagh. This is the only known architectural project directly linked to her.

Death and aftermath

Mumtaz Mahal died from heavy bleeding after childbirth on June 17, 1631, in Burhanpur while giving birth to her 14th child. She had been with her husband during a military campaign in the Deccan Plateau. Her body was first buried in a garden called Zainabad, which was built by Shah Jahan's uncle Daniyal near the Tapti River. Historians at the time wrote many details about her death and Shah Jahan's sadness. After her death, Shah Jahan was said to be very upset and spent a year in mourning. When he returned, he looked older, with white hair and a tired face. His daughter, Jahanara Begum, helped him recover and took her mother's role at court.

Mumtaz Mahal's personal wealth, worth 10 million rupees, was divided among her children, with half going to Jahanara Begum. Burhanpur was not meant to be her final resting place. In December 1631, her body was moved in a golden container to Agra by her son Shah Shuja, her head lady-in-waiting, and a court official named Wazir Khan. It was placed in a small building near the Yamuna River. Shah Jahan remained in Burhanpur to finish the military campaign and began planning the construction of a tomb and garden for Mumtaz Mahal in Agra. This project took 22 years to complete and became the Taj Mahal.

The Taj Mahal was built by Shah Jahan as a tomb for Mumtaz Mahal. It is seen as a symbol of love and devotion. The monument is described as a representation of Mumtaz Mahal's beauty, which is why many view it as feminine. Because Muslim traditions do not allow elaborate decorations on graves, Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan's bodies are placed in a simple crypt beneath the main chamber, with their faces turned toward Mecca.

The tomb includes calligraphic writings of the Ninety Nine Names of God, such as "O Noble, O Magnificent, O Majestic, O Unique, O Eternal, O Glorious…" Some believe the name "Taj Mahal" comes from the abbreviation of Mumtaz's name. European travelers like François Bernier, who saw the construction, were among the first to call it the Taj Mahal. They likely heard the name from locals who called the empress "Taj Mahal." Shah Jahan did not plan to bury anyone else in the Taj Mahal, but after his death, his son Aurangzeb placed his father's body next to Mumtaz Mahal's. This is shown by the unequal placement of Shah Jahan's grave on one side of Mumtaz Mahal's central grave.

In popular culture

• A crater on asteroid 433 Eros was named in her honor, as was another crater named after her husband.
• A crater on the planet Venus is named after her.

• A cat named after Mumtaz Mahal, also known as "Princess Arjumand," plays an important role in Connie Willis’s 1997 novel To Say Nothing of the Dog.
• Arjumand Banu (Mumtaz Mahal) is a main character in Indu Sundaresan’s novel The Feast of Roses (2003). The sequel, Shadow Princess (2010), begins with her death.
• Mumtaz Mahal is a central character in Sonja Chandrachud’s novel Trouble at the Taj (2011). In the book, she appears as a ghost.
• In John Shors’s novel Beneath a Marble Sky (2013), Mahal’s daughter, Princess Jahanara, describes how the Taj Mahal was built and shares her experiences as part of its creation.
• Manahil Bandukwala’s first poetry collection, Monument (2022), is a dialogue with Mumtaz Mahal. It discusses themes such as love, legacy, family, and empire.

• Mumtaz Mahal is a 1926 Indian silent film directed by Homi Master.
• Actress Enakshi Rama Rau portrayed Mumtaz Mahal in the film Shiraz (1928).
• The 1944 Indian film Mumtaz Mahal is based on her life.
• Actress Suraiya played the role of young Mumtaz Mahal in Nanubhai Vakil’s film Taj Mahal (1941).
• Mumtaz Mahal was portrayed by actress Nasreen in Abdul Rashid Kardar’s film Shahjehan (1946).
• Mumtaz Mahal is a 1957 Indian Hindi-language drama film directed by Ram Daryani, with Veena in the lead role.
• Bina Rai played Mumtaz Mahal in M. Sadiq’s film Taj Mahal (1963).
• Zeba portrayed Mumtaz Mahal in S. T. Zaidi’s film Taj Mahal (1968).
• Shahzadi Mumtaz is an Indian film from 1977, starring Asokan and Shakuntala.
• Purnima Patwardhan played Mumtaz Mahal in the 2003 historical drama Taj Mahal: A Monument of Love.
• Sonya Jehan portrayed Mumtaz Mahal in Akbar Khan’s film Taj Mahal: An Eternal Love Story (2005).
• Suhani Juneja played the role of young Arjumand Banu Begum in the second season of the webseries Taj: Divided by Blood on Zee5.

• Mumtaz Mahal inspired the creation of the popular Guerlain perfume Shalimar, introduced in 1921.