Joséphine Bonaparte (French: [ʒozefin bɔnapaʁt]), born Marie Josèphe Rose Tascher de La Pagerie, was born on June 23, 1763, and died on May 29, 1814. She was the first wife of Emperor Napoleon I and therefore became Empress of the French from May 18, 1804, until her marriage was ended by legal action on January 10, 1810. As Napoleon’s wife, she was also Queen of Italy from May 26, 1805, until the same legal action in 1810. She is most commonly known as Joséphine de Beauharnais (French: [ʒozefin də boaʁnɛ]) or Empress Joséphine.

Joséphine’s marriage to Napoleon was her second. Her first husband, Alexandre de Beauharnais, was executed during the Reign of Terror, and she was imprisoned in the Carmes prison until five days after his death. Through her children with Beauharnais, she became the grandmother of Emperor Napoleon III of France and Empress Amélie of Brazil. Members of the current royal families of Sweden, Denmark, Belgium, and Norway, as well as the grand ducal family of Luxembourg, are descendants of her. Because she did not have children with Napoleon, he ended their marriage and later married Marie Louise of Austria. Joséphine received many love letters from Napoleon, many of which still exist today.

Joséphine supported the arts and worked with sculptors, painters, and interior decorators to create a unique style for the Consulate and Empire period at the Château de Malmaison. She became one of the most important collectors of art in her time, including sculpture and painting. The Château de Malmaison was famous for its rose garden, which she carefully managed.

Name

Although she is often called "Joséphine de Beauharnais," this was not the name she used. "Beauharnais" was the name of her first husband, which she stopped using after marrying Napoleon. She took the name "Bonaparte" instead. Her full name was Marie-Josèphe-Rose. Before meeting Napoleon, she was known as Rose or Marie-Rose Tascher de la Pagerie, later de Beauharnais. She sometimes used her maiden name later in life. After marrying General Bonaparte, she became Joséphine Bonaparte. The name "Joséphine de Beauharnais" was used during the restoration of the Bourbons, who were hesitant to use Napoleon's surname or her imperial title.

Family background

The Tascher family was an old French noble family who owned land. Joséphine's grandfather, Gaspard-Joseph Tascher de La Pagerie (1705–1767), was the first family member to move to Le Carbet on Martinique in 1726. He lived in poverty there but helped his son, Joseph-Gaspard Tascher de La Pagerie (5 July 1735 – 7 November 1790), get a job as a servant in the household of Maria Josepha of Saxony, the Dauphine of France.

After spending three years in France from 1752, Joseph-Gaspard returned to Martinique and married Marie Rose-Claire des Vergers de Sannois (27 August 1736 – 1 June 1807) on 9 November 1761. Marie Rose-Claire’s maternal grandfather, Anthony Brown, may have been Irish. She came from one of the oldest European families on the island. The Tascher family home near Les Trois-Îlets, a sugar plantation that is now a museum, was part of Marie Rose-Claire’s gift from her family.

On Martinique, Joseph-Gaspard worked as a plantation owner and a lieutenant in the Troupes de marine, in addition to receiving a small pension from his earlier work in the royal household. He often faced financial difficulties and had poor health throughout his life.

Disputed birthplace

Marie-Josèphe-Rose Tascher de La Pagerie was born in Paix Bouche, Babonneau, Saint Lucia on 23 June 1763. A church record in Les Trois-Îlets, Martinique shows that Joséphine was baptised there by Emmanuel Capuchin, but the record does not mention she was born there.

Joséphine's father owned an estate in Soufrière District on Saint Lucia called Malmaison, which later became the name of her famous French home. In 1802, Dom Daviot, a priest in Gros Islet on Saint Lucia, wrote to a friend saying that "the wife of the first consul was born near my parish." He claimed he knew Joséphine's cousin, who lived in his parish.

In Henry H. Breen's 1844 book The History of St. Lucia, he wrote that he spoke with several people who believed Joséphine was born on Saint Lucia. Breen included a newspaper article from 1831 that said the de Tascher family was among the first settlers of Saint Lucia and that Joséphine was born on a small estate called La Cauzette, later renamed Morne Paix Bouche. The article stated the family lived there until 1771, when Joséphine's father moved to serve as an official in Martinique. Some people claimed they had played with Joséphine as a child, and one said he was welcomed by her at Château de Malmaison near Paris. Breen also received information from Joséphine's enslaved nurse, Dede, who said she cared for Joséphine at La Cauzette.

Those who believe Joséphine was born on Saint Lucia say the family's estate in Martinique was only a temporary home they used when visiting Joséphine's mother-in-law. Saint Lucia changed ownership between Britain and France fourteen times during Joséphine's childhood, and there were no official birth records on the island when she was born. The frequent changes in control may explain why her birthplace is not clearly recorded, as it could have affected her nationality.

No matter where she was born, Joséphine was her parents' first child. They had two more children: Catherine-Désirée in 1764 and Marie-Françoise in 1766. At ages ten and nine, Joséphine and Catherine-Désirée attended a boarding school in Fort-Royal run by the Bénédictines de la Providence. There, they learned to read, write, sing, dance, and sew for four years. After Catherine-Désirée died, Joséphine returned to her family's plantation. Joséphine's nurse was an enslaved person named Marion, whom she later freed in 1807.

First marriage

Joséphine's paternal aunt, Marie Euphémie Désirée Tascher de la Pagerie (1739–1803), was first the mistress and later married François de Beauharnais, a French naval officer and governor of Martinique. He belonged to a noble family that was not as old as the Tascher family but had more money. While living in Martinique, de Beauharnais had a son, Alexandre, with his first wife, Marie Anne Henriette Françoise Pyvart de Chastullé (1722–1766). Later, the family returned to France, leaving the infant with the Tascher family until 1766. When Alexandre reached adulthood, his father's mistress, who was also his godmother, believed it would be beneficial for her if he married one of her nieces. At seventeen, Alexandre thought Joséphine, who was fifteen, was too close in age to him. Instead, he married Catherine-Désirée Tascher de la Pagerie (1764–1777), the youngest daughter of the Tascher family. Catherine-Désirée died in 1777 before the marriage could take place. Her father then offered his other daughter, Marie-Françoise, but she was too young, and her mother and grandmother refused to let her go. Eventually, Joséphine was chosen as Alexandre's bride.

In October 1779, Joséphine traveled to France with her father. She married Alexandre on December 13, 1779, in Noisy-le-Grand. They had two children: a son, Eugène de Beauharnais, and a daughter, Hortense de Beauharnais, who later married Napoleon's brother, Louis Bonaparte, in 1802. Alexandre claimed legal fatherhood of Hortense, but when Joséphine told him about her birth, he wrote that he was certain the child was the result of an affair. Joséphine and Alexandre's marriage was unhappy. Alexandre left his family for over a year to live with a mistress and visited brothels, leading to a court-ordered separation. During this time, Joséphine and the children lived at Alexandre's expense in the Pentemont Abbey.

On March 2, 1794, during the Reign of Terror, the Committee of Public Safety ordered the arrest of Joséphine's husband. He was jailed in the Carmes Prison in Paris. Because Joséphine was seen as too close to groups opposing the French Revolution, the Committee ordered her arrest on April 18, 1794. A warrant for her arrest was issued on April 21, 1794, and she was imprisoned in the Carmes Prison until July 28. During this time, Joséphine could only communicate with her children through messages written on laundry lists, which the jailers later stopped allowing.

Her husband was accused of failing to defend Mainz in July 1793 and was considered an aristocratic suspect. He was sentenced to death and executed by guillotine on July 23, 1794, along with his cousin Augustin, on the Place de la Révolution (later called Place de la Concorde) in Paris. Joséphine was released five days later after the fall of Maximilien Robespierre, which ended the Reign of Terror. On July 27, 1794, Tallien arranged Joséphine's release. In June 1795, a new law allowed her to reclaim the possessions that had belonged to Alexandre.

Marriage to Napoleon

Madame de Beauharnais had relationships with important political leaders, including Paul Barras. In 1795, she met Napoleon Bonaparte, who was six years younger than her, and became his lover. In a letter to her in December, he wrote, "I wake up thinking of you. Your image and the memory of our joyful time together have left me without peace." In January 1796, Napoleon proposed to her, and they married on March 9. On the marriage certificate, Joséphine listed her age as 4 years younger and Napoleon's age as 18 months older, making them appear to be about the same age. Before meeting Bonaparte, she was known as Rose, but Bonaparte preferred to call her Joséphine, the name she used from then on.

Napoleon’s family did not approve of the marriage, as they were surprised he had married an older woman who already had children. His mother and sisters were especially upset with Joséphine, feeling she made them seem clumsy and unrefined.

Joséphine stayed in Paris in 1796 and began a relationship with a military officer named Hippolyte Charles. Rumors about this affair reached Napoleon, who became very angry, and his feelings for her changed completely.

Napoleon often wrote loving letters to Joséphine from Italy, asking her to join him in Milan after he captured the city on May 10, 1796. After much pressure, Joséphine agreed to travel to Italy and arrived in Milan on July 10, 1796. Hippolyte Charles was part of her group. She stayed in Italy for 18 months, living mainly in Milan and later at the nearby Château de Mombello, where Napoleon’s family joined her.

Two days after their wedding, Napoleon left Paris to lead the Army of Italy. During their time apart, he sent her many letters expressing his love. In February 1797, he wrote: "You, who nature gave spirit, sweetness, and beauty, you who alone can move and rule my heart, you who know how much power you have over it!"

In 1798, Napoleon led a French army to Egypt. During this time, he began a relationship with Pauline Fourès, the wife of a junior officer, who became known as "Napoleon's Cleopatra." After this, the relationship between Joséphine and Napoleon was never the same.

In December 1800, Joséphine was nearly killed in the Plot of the rue Saint-Nicaise, an attack on Napoleon using a bomb hidden in a cart. On December 24, she and Napoleon attended a performance of Joseph Haydn’s Creation at the Opéra, accompanied by friends and family. They traveled in two carriages. Joséphine was in the second carriage with her daughter, Hortense; her pregnant sister-in-law, Caroline Murat; and General Jean Rapp. She delayed the group while adjusting a new silk shawl, and Napoleon went ahead in the first carriage. The bomb exploded as her carriage passed, killing bystanders and a horse, shattering the carriage windows, and injuring Hortense with flying glass. No one else was hurt, and the group continued to the Opéra.

Napoleon was elected Emperor of the French in 1804, making Joséphine empress. The coronation ceremony, led by Pope Pius VII, took place at Notre-Dame de Paris on December 2. Napoleon first crowned himself, then placed the crown on Joséphine’s head, declaring her empress. This showed his belief that the clergy should not hold power over Europe.

As empress, Joséphine had a court appointed to her and restored roles that existed before the French Revolution. These included Adélaïde de La Rochefoucauld as Première dame d’honneur, Émilie de Beauharnais as Dame d’atour, and the wives of Napoleon’s officials and generals as Dame de Palais.

Before their coronation, an incident at the Château de Saint-Cloud nearly ended their marriage. Joséphine found Napoleon in the bedroom of her lady-in-waiting, Élisabeth de Vaudey. Napoleon threatened to divorce her because she had not given him a child, as his family had pressured him to do so. Eventually, through the efforts of her daughter, Hortense, they reconciled.

After several years, it became clear Joséphine could not have children. Though he still loved her, Napoleon began considering an annulment. This decision was final when his nephew, Napoléon-Charles Bonaparte, who had been declared his heir, died of an illness in 1807. Again pressured by his family, Napoleon created lists of eligible princesses. At dinner on November 30, 1809, he told Joséphine that, for the good of France, he needed to find a wife who could have children. He expressed that this was not his wish but his family’s. Joséphine agreed to the divorce so Napoleon could remarry. The divorce ceremony took place on January 10, 1810, and was a grand but solemn event. Each read a statement of love for the other. Napoleon gave Joséphine the Sèvres Egyptian Service as a gift.

On March 11, Napoleon married Marie-Louise of Austria by proxy, and the official ceremony took place at the Louvre in April. Napoleon once said, "It is a womb that I am marrying," referring to Marie-Louise’s ability to have children. Even after their separation, Joséphine kept the title and rank of empress.

Later life and death

After the divorce, Joséphine lived at the Château de Malmaison, near Paris. She continued to have a good relationship with Napoleon, who gave her money each year and once said that the only problem between them was her debts. (Joséphine privately said, "The only thing that ever came between us was my debts; certainly not his manhood.") In April 1810, Napoleon officially made her Duchess of Navarre through royal documents. Some people believe Napoleon and Joséphine were still secretly in love, though this cannot be confirmed.

In March 1811, Marie Louise gave birth to a much-wanted child, Napoleon II, who was named "King of Rome" by Napoleon. Two years later, Napoleon arranged for Joséphine to meet the young prince, who had caused her much sadness.

Joséphine died of pneumonia in Rueil-Malmaison on 29 May 1814, shortly after walking with Emperor Alexander I of Russia in the gardens of Malmaison. She reportedly asked to join Napoleon in exile. She was buried in the nearby church of Saint Pierre-Saint Paul in Rueil. Her daughter, Hortense, is buried next to her.

Napoleon learned of her death through a French newspaper while in exile on Elba and stayed in his room for two days, refusing to see anyone. Later, while in exile on Saint Helena, he told a friend, "I truly loved my Joséphine, but I did not respect her." Despite his many affairs, the divorce, and his remarriage, Napoleon’s final words on his deathbed at Saint Helena were: "France, the Army, the Head of the Army, Joséphine." ("France, l'armée, tête d'armée, Joséphine.")

Descendants

Hortense's son, Napoleon III, became Emperor of the French. Eugène's son, Maximilian de Beauharnais, the 3rd Duke of Leuchtenberg, married into the Russian Imperial family. He was given the title of Imperial Highness and started the Russian branch of the Beauharnais family. Eugène's daughter, Joséphine, married King Oscar I of Sweden, who was the son of Napoleon's former fiancée, Désirée Clary. Through Joséphine, the current leaders of the royal families of Belgium, Denmark, Luxembourg, Norway, Sweden, and the grandducal family of Baden are direct descendants.

Some jewels worn by modern royals are believed to have been worn by Joséphine. The Norwegian royal family has an emerald and diamond set that once belonged to Joséphine, inherited through the Leuchtenberg family. The briolette diamonds, which were passed to her son Eugène, were later inherited by his son Maximilian through his marriage to the Romanov family. These diamonds were turned into the Empress Joséphine Tiara by Fabérge's master goldsmith, August Holmström, in the late 1880s. The Swedish royal family owns several jewelry pieces often linked to Joséphine, including the Leuchtenberg Sapphire Parure, a set of amethyst jewels given as a wedding gift to her daughter-in-law, Augusta Amalia, and the Cameo Parure, worn by Sweden's royal brides.

Another of Eugène's daughters, Amélie of Leuchtenberg, married Emperor Pedro I of Brazil in Rio de Janeiro and became Empress of Brazil. They had one surviving daughter, Princess Maria Amélia of Brazil. She was briefly engaged to Archduke Maximilian of Austria before he became Maximilian I of Mexico. She died young before the engagement could continue.

Personality and appearance

Her biographer, Carolly Erickson, wrote, "In choosing her lovers, Joséphine followed her head first, then her heart," meaning she was skilled at selecting men who could best meet her financial and social needs. She recognized Napoleon's ability to help her. Joséphine was known for spending large amounts of money, and Barras may have supported her relationship with General Bonaparte to reduce the burden of caring for her. Joséphine was naturally kind, generous, and charming, and she was admired for her ability to entertain guests.

Joséphine was described as average in height, slim, and well-proportioned. She had long, silky chestnut-brown hair, hazel eyes, and a pale or yellowish complexion. Her nose was small and straight, and her mouth was well-shaped; however, she often kept it closed to hide her poor teeth. She was praised for her elegance, fashion sense, and her low, smooth, and pleasant voice.

Patroness of roses

In 1799, while Napoleon was in Egypt, Joséphine bought the Chateau de Malmaison. She hired British gardeners and plant experts to landscape it in an English style. These included Thomas Blaikie, a Scottish horticultural expert; Alexander Howatson, another Scottish gardener; Ventenat, a botanist; and André Dupont, a horticulturist. Soon after purchasing the chateau, she began creating a rose garden, inspired by Dupont’s love for roses. Joséphine personally cared for the gardens and learned about plants and gardening from her staff. She wanted to collect all known rose varieties, so Napoleon asked his naval commanders to search captured ships for plants to send to Malmaison. Pierre-Joseph Redouté was hired to paint the flowers from her gardens. Les Roses, a book with 168 rose illustrations, was published between 1817 and 1820. About 75 to 80 of the roses shown in the book grew at Malmaison. An English nursery, Lee and Kennedy, supplied many plants, even though Britain and France were at war. In 1810, arrangements were made to send plants like Hume’s Blush Tea-Scented China from China to Joséphine’s garden. Sir Joseph Banks, director of the Royal Botanic Gardens in Kew, also sent her roses.

It is generally believed that Joséphine had about 250 roses in her garden when she died in 1814. The roses were not organized into a catalog during her time. According to calculations by Jules Gravereaux of Roseraie de l'Haye, there may have been only 197 rose varieties in 1814. These included about 12 species, 40 centifolias, mosses, and damasks, 20 Bengals, and 100 gallicas. The botanist Claude Antoine Thory, who wrote descriptions for Redouté’s paintings in Les Roses, noted that Joséphine’s Bengal rose, R. indica, had black spots. She wrote the first recorded history of rose cultivation and is believed to have hosted the first rose exhibition in 1810.

Modern rose hybridization through controlled pollination began with Joséphine’s horticulturist, André Dupont. Before this, most new rose varieties appeared by chance, such as through bee pollination or natural mutations. With controlled pollination, new rose types appeared much more often. Of the roughly 200 rose types known to Joséphine, Dupont created 25 while working for her. In the 30 years after her death, French hybridizers developed over 1,000 new rose varieties. By 1910, about 8,000 rose types existed in Gravereaux’s garden. Bechtel believes Joséphine’s support helped increase the popularity of roses as garden plants. She was a well-liked leader, and fashionable people imitated her choices.

Brenner and Scanniello called her the “Godmother of modern rosomaniacs” and credited her with creating the modern style of naming rose varieties using common names instead of scientific Latin names. For example, R. alba incarnata became “Cuisse de Nymphe Emue” in her garden. After Joséphine’s death in 1814, the house was sometimes empty, and the garden and house were damaged and destroyed during a battle in 1870.

Jacques-Louis Descemet dedicated Impératrice Joséphine to her before 1815. Jean-Pierre Vibert dedicated Joséphine Beauharnais in her honor in 1823. The rose ‘Souvenir de la Malmaison’ was introduced in 1844, 30 years after her death, and named in her honor by a Russian Grand Duke who planted the first specimen in the Imperial Garden in St. Petersburg.

Art patronage

Empress Joséphine loved all forms of art. She had a strong interest in horticulture and appreciated creative works such as paintings, sculptures, furniture, and architecture. Her passion for art grew during her marriage to her first husband, who held a high position in society. This allowed her to visit homes of influential people and study their artwork. After marrying Napoleon and becoming Empress, she surrounded herself with art from her time and also admired works by older artists. She was drawn to artists and styles that were not widely used, seeking those who challenged common ideas. Joséphine attended the Salon to connect with contemporary artists and supported several by helping them build their careers. After purchasing the Château de Malmaison, she used the space to display her art and style, creating salons, galleries, a theater, and her famous garden. The Malmaison and Tuileries Palace became important centers for government and the arts. Joséphine’s court became the leading artistic center in Europe. She was the first French royal woman of her scale to collect art, influencing the Consular and Empire Style.

Joséphine worked with many artists throughout her life. She collected paintings and was painted by artists such as Jacques-Louis David and François Gérard. She especially favored Antoine-Jean Gros, commissioning him frequently. When he learned Joséphine would visit Genoa, Gros sought an introduction, knowing her support could help his career. After meeting her, Joséphine invited Gros to live in her residences and commissioned him to paint a portrait of her husband, General Bonaparte. The painting, Bonaparte at the Pont d'Arcole, became important in Napoleon’s propaganda. Gros later painted other portraits of Napoleon, showing him as a strong and powerful leader. Joséphine’s support helped Gros spread the government’s message about Napoleon’s rule.

Over her lifetime, Joséphine commissioned four major works from the Italian Neoclassical sculptor Antonio Canova. She received a copy of his sculpture Cupid and Psyche, which was originally promised to another person. She later commissioned Dancer with Hands on Hips, created between 1802 and 1812. Canova worked on his own terms, blending classical styles with a relaxed and joyful look. He also made a sculpture called Paris, completed in 1812 and delivered to Malmaison in 1813, a year before Joséphine’s death. The final sculpture she commissioned was The Three Graces, finished after her death in 1816. All four works were later sold to Tsar Alexander of Russia.

Architects Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine became Joséphine and Napoleon’s main decorators. Many of her famous furnishings were made especially for her by Percier and Fontaine. They designed spaces in the empire’s homes to make Joséphine feel comfortable. Their style included cheval glass and softer, feminine designs for the Empress’s boudoir. These pieces were unique for their time and admired for their creativity. Percier and Fontaine are closely linked to the Empire style of the era.

In popular culture

In 1859, French Emperor Napoleon III ordered a statue of Joséphine to be created. It was placed in La Savane park in Fort-de-France, a city in Martinique. In 1991, the statue was damaged by people who cut off its head and covered it with red paint. These acts were done because some believed Joséphine had influenced her husband to pass the Law of 20 May 1802, which allowed slavery to return in French colonies, including Martinique. The city did not repair the statue, and each year, more red paint was added to it. In July 2020, during protests related to the George Floyd case, the statue was removed and destroyed by people who were demonstrating.

• Conan Doyle, Sir Arthur (1897). Uncle Bernac.
• Fields, Bertram (2015). Destiny: A Novel Of Napoleon & Josephine.
• Gulland, Sandra (1995). The Many Lives & Secret Sorrows of Josephine B.
• ——— (1998). Tales of Passion, Tales of Woe.
• ——— (2000). The Last Great Dance on Earth.
• Kenyon, F. W. (1952). The Emperor's Lady.
• Mossiker, Frances (1965). Napoleon and Josephine.
• ——— (1971). More Than a Queen: The Story of Josephine Bonaparte.
• Pataki, Allison (2020). The Queen's Fortune: Desiree, Napoleon, and the Dynasty That Outlasted the Empire.
• Selinko, Annemarie (1958). Désirée.
• Webb, Heather (2013). Becoming Josephine.
• Winterson, Jeanette (1987). The Passion.
• Parkyn, Stephanie (2019). Josephine's Garden.

• Napoleon and Love (1974) is a British television series. Napoleon is played by Ian Holm, and Joséphine is played by Billie Whitelaw.
• Napoléon and Josephine: A Love Story (miniseries) (1987) is a miniseries. Napoleon is played by Armand Assante, and Joséphine is played by Jacqueline Bisset.
• Napoléon (2002) is a historical TV miniseries about Napoleon’s life. Joséphine is shown in the story, played by Isabella Rossellini.
• In 2015 and 2017, an episode of Horrible Histories called "Naughty Napoleon" and "Ridiculous Romantics" featured Natalie Walter and Gemma Whelan as Joséphine de Beauharnais.

In Ridley Scott’s 2023 film Napoleon, Joséphine is played by English actress Vanessa Kirby.

• The operetta Kaiserin Josephine, music by Emmerich Kálmán, was first performed in Zürich on 18 January 1936.
• The love song "Josephine" from The Magnetic Fields' 1991 album Distant Plastic Trees includes the line: "If I were Napoleon, you could be my Josephine…"
• The song "Josephine" from Frank Turner’s 2015 album Positive Songs for Negative People mentions Joséphine and Josephine Brunsvik to describe Turner’s desire for a muse who inspires him.
• The song "Impressed" from Charlie Sexton’s 1985 album Pictures for Pleasure refers to Napoleon and Joséphine in the opening lines.
• The song "Josephine" from Tori Amos’s 1999 partially live album To Venus and Back mentions the phrase "Not tonight, Joséphine," which is said to have been spoken by Napoleon, and also discusses his military career.
• The song "Paint me, Redouté" from June Tabor’s 2001 album Rosa Mundi includes Joséphine telling her life story to Redouté and speaking about her love for roses.

• John Galliano said his inspiration came from imagining the pregnant rock star Madonna dressed as Empress Josephine.