In the study of stories and myths, the hero's journey, also called the monomyth, is a common pattern found in many tales. It describes a hero who goes on an adventure, faces a major challenge, and returns home changed.

Earlier thinkers, such as psychoanalyst Otto Rank and amateur anthropologist Lord Raglan, had suggested similar ideas. Later, Joseph Campbell popularized the study of hero myths. He was influenced by the work of Carl Jung and used the monomyth to compare religious stories. In his 1949 book The Hero with a Thousand Faces, Campbell explained the hero's journey as a recurring narrative structure.

Campbell's ideas about the monomyth have been criticized by some scholars, especially folklorists, who argue that his approach lacks scholarly rigor and may be biased in how he selected sources.

More recently, the hero's journey has been studied as an example of a "sympathetic plot," a universal story structure in which a determined main character faces challenges, overcomes them, and achieves a goal.

Background

The study of hero myths began in 1871 when anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor noticed similar patterns in the stories of heroes' journeys. In 1876, German scholar Johann Georg von Hahn created a list of common elements, such as character traits, events, and situations, that often appeared in stories about heroes from Indo-European cultures. His work was titled Sagwissenschaftliche Studien (Scientific Studies).

In the study of stories and comparing myths from different cultures, several experts have identified patterns in hero narratives. In 1909, psychoanalyst Otto Rank and in 1936, amateur anthropologist Lord Raglan each made lists of features that often appear in stories about mythical heroes. Both scholars discussed these patterns using ideas from Freudian psychoanalysis and rituals. According to Robert Segal: "The theories of Rank, Campbell, and Raglan typify the array of analyses of hero myths."

Terminology

Joseph Campbell borrowed the term "monomyth" from James Joyce's book Finnegans Wake (1939). Campbell was a respected scholar of Joyce's work and co-wrote an important analysis of Finnegans Wake in A Skeleton Key to Finnegans Wake (1944). Campbell's use of "monomyth" suggests that the "hero's journey" is the most basic story pattern found in many cultures. However, the term "monomyth" has sometimes been used more broadly to describe a recurring story or theme in myths worldwide. Omry Ronen called Vyacheslav Ivanov's description of Dionysus as an "avatar of Christ" (1904) "Ivanov's monomyth."

The phrase "the hero's journey," which refers to Campbell's idea of the monomyth, became widely known through two documentaries. The first, The Hero's Journey: The World of Joseph Campbell (1987), was paired with a book published in 1990 titled The Hero's Journey: Joseph Campbell on His Life and Work (edited by Phil Cousineau and Stuart Brown). The second was a documentary series by Bill Moyers, released in 1988 as The Power of Myth, which also included a companion book. In the introduction to a revised edition of The Hero's Journey, Phil Cousineau wrote that the monomyth is "a meta myth," meaning a way of thinking about the shared spiritual history of all people, or "the story behind the story."

Summary

In his book The Hero with a Thousand Faces (1949), Joseph Campbell explains that the monomyth, or hero’s journey, has 17 stages. Not every myth includes all 17 stages clearly; some focus on only one stage, and others may present the stages in a different order. According to Claude Lévi-Strauss, these stages are called mythemes. These mythemes are grouped together to form the structure of the monomyth.

The 17 stages can be organized into three main parts: departure, initiation, and return.

In the departure section, the hero lives in a normal world and receives a call to begin an adventure. At first, the hero is unwilling to accept the call but is helped by a mentor.

The initiation section begins when the hero crosses into a new, unknown world. There, the hero faces challenges or trials, either alone or with the help of others. The hero reaches the most difficult part of the journey, called the "innermost cave," where he must overcome a major obstacle or enemy. After this challenge, the hero experiences a transformation, called "apotheosis," and gains a reward, such as a treasure or "elixir."

In the return section, the hero must return to the normal world with the reward. The hero may be chased by guardians of the special world or may not want to leave and might need help to return. The hero crosses back into the normal world and uses the reward to help others. The hero is changed by the journey and gains wisdom or power that benefits both the normal world and the special world.

Campbell's seventeen stages

The hero begins in a normal situation and receives information that calls them to leave their familiar world and journey into the unknown. According to Campbell, this stage represents

Sometimes, when the call comes, the hero refuses it at first. This may be because of duty, fear, insecurity, or a feeling of not being ready. Campbell explains that

Once the hero decides to follow the call, whether they realize it or not, a guide or magical helper appears. This helper often gives the hero tools or items that will help them later. Campbell writes:

This is when the hero leaves their known world and enters a new, dangerous place with unknown rules. Campbell tells us:

The "belly of the whale" represents the hero’s final separation from their old life and self. Entering this stage shows the hero is ready to change. At first, the hero may face a small danger or challenge. According to Campbell:

In the Book of Jonah, the Israelite Jonah refuses God’s command to warn Nineveh and tries to escape by sailing to Tarshish. A storm hits, and the sailors find Jonah is to blame. He is thrown overboard and swallowed by a large fish. After three days, Jonah accepts God’s will and is safely returned to land. He then goes to Nineveh and preaches. In Jungian analysis, Jonah’s time inside the fish is seen as a symbol of death and rebirth.

In The Power of Myth, Campbell agrees with Bill Moyers that the trash-compactor scene in the original Star Wars film is a strong example of this step. George Lucas said Star Wars was intentionally designed using the hero’s journey structure.

The "road of trials" is a series of tests the hero must face to grow. The hero often fails some tests, which are usually in groups of three. Eventually, the hero overcomes these challenges and moves forward. Campbell explains that

This is when the hero receives items that will help them later. Campbell proposes that

In this step, the hero faces temptations that could lead them away from their quest. These temptations are not always represented by a woman, though a woman can symbolize physical or material temptations. Campbell relates that

Here, the hero must face and be accepted by the most powerful force in their life. This is often a father figure or someone with great power. This is the journey’s central point. All previous steps lead to this moment, and all future steps follow from it. While a male figure is common, it does not have to be a man—any powerful being will do. Per Campbell:

Campbell later explains:

This is when the hero gains a deeper understanding. With this knowledge, the hero is ready for the harder parts of the journey. Campbell discloses that

The "ultimate boon" is the goal the hero sought. It is what the hero gained from the journey. All earlier steps prepare the hero for this moment, as the boon may be something valuable, like an elixir or a holy object. Campbell confers that

After achieving their goal, the hero may not want to return to their old life. Campbell continues:

Sometimes, the hero must escape with the boon if it is protected by powerful beings. Returning home can be as dangerous as the journey itself. Campbell argues that

Just as the hero may need help to begin the journey, they often need help to return, especially if they are weakened. Campbell explains:

Campbell says in The Hero with a Thousand Faces that "The returning hero, to complete their adventure, must survive the impact of the world." The goal of returning is to share the wisdom gained and integrate it into society. Campbell writes:

For a human hero, this may mean finding balance between the material and spiritual. The person becomes skilled in both the inner and outer worlds. Campbell demonstrates that

Discussing this stage, Campbell cites the Apostles of Jesus, who were selfless by the time of their master’s transfiguration, as well as Krishna, who said, "He who does My work and regards Me as the Supreme Goal … without hatred for any creature—he comes to Me." Campbell goes on to illustrate that

In this step, the hero gains freedom from fear of death. This freedom allows them to live fully in the present, without worrying about the past or future. Campbell declares,

In popular culture and literature

The monomyth concept has been widely used in American literature and writing guides since the 1970s. Christopher Vogler, a Hollywood film producer and writer, created a 7-page company memo titled A Practical Guide to The Hero with a Thousand Faces, based on the work of Joseph Campbell. This memo was later expanded into the book The Writer's Journey: Mythic Structure for Writers.

George Lucas's 1977 film Star Wars was quickly recognized as an example of the monomyth. In addition to a 1988 televised discussion between Joseph Campbell and Bill Moyers titled The Power of Myth, Lucas shared an interview in which he explained that after finishing American Graffiti, he realized there were few modern uses of mythology. This led him to research fairy tales, folklore, and mythology, including Campbell's books. Lucas noted that reading The Hero with a Thousand Faces helped him see that his first draft of Star Wars followed classic story patterns. Moyers and Lucas also met in 1999 to discuss how Campbell's ideas influenced Lucas's films. Additionally, the National Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution hosted an exhibit in the late 1990s called Star Wars: The Magic of Myth, which explored how Campbell's work shaped the Star Wars series.

Many popular fiction works have been identified by authors as examples of the monomyth, including The Faerie Queene by Edmund Spenser, Moby-Dick by Herman Melville, Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë, works by Charles Dickens, William Faulkner, Somerset Maugham, J. D. Salinger, Ernest Hemingway, Mark Twain, W. B. Yeats, C. S. Lewis, J. R. R. Tolkien, Seamus Heaney, and Stephen King. Other examples include Plato's Allegory of the Cave, Homer's Odyssey, The Wonderful Wizard of Oz by L. Frank Baum, and Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll, among many others.

During the writing of 2001: A Space Odyssey, Stanley Kubrick introduced Arthur C. Clarke to The Hero with a Thousand Faces by Joseph Campbell. Clarke later described Campbell's book as "very stimulating" in his diary.

The monomyth is a central theme in the video game Alan Wake and its sequel Alan Wake 2. The first game's central novel and final episode are titled "Departure," while "Initation" and "Return" are the titles of the stories of Alan and Saga Anderson, respectively.

Feminist literature and female heroines within the monomyth

Charlotte Brontë’s character Jane Eyre is an important example of how heroines can shape the hero’s journey. Brontë aimed to create a strong female character that fully represented the term “heroine.” Jane Eyre is a Bildungsroman, a type of story that follows a character’s growth from childhood to adulthood, common in Victorian literature. These stories show how the main character develops morally and emotionally as they become an adult.

Jane, a middle-class woman in Victorian times, faced different challenges than male characters like Pip in Great Expectations. This changed the hero’s journey because Brontë recognized the unique struggles women faced during this time, such as limited access to power and wealth.

Brontë made Jane more passionate and outspoken than many other Victorian women. The abuse and emotional pain Jane endured as a child from the Reeds led her to set two main goals: to love and be loved, and to gain freedom. Jane took a step toward freedom when she scolded Mrs. Reed for treating her unfairly, which gave her a sense of mental independence.

As Jane grew, she refused to give up one goal for the other. When Rochester, the main male character in her story, asked her to be his mistress, she refused because it would harm her freedom. Later, after Rochester’s wife died, Jane returned to him, now able to marry him as an equal and achieve both of her goals, completing her journey.

Although the story ends with Jane marrying Rochester, Brontë showed her returning after growing and becoming an equal partner. This made Jane one of the most complete and satisfying heroines in literature.

The story of Cupid and Psyche is one of thirteen tales in Metamorphoses by Apuleius, written in 158 A.D. It follows a hero’s journey. Psyche, the main character, is forced into the journey because of her beauty. Her beauty causes men to worship her instead of the goddess Venus, which angers Venus and leads to Psyche being banished from her home. An oracle tells Psyche to travel to a rocky place in funeral clothes, where the west wind takes her to a divine location. There, she marries Cupid, who hides his identity. When Psyche tries to discover who he is, Cupid leaves, and she begins a quest to find him. Venus gives Psyche four difficult tasks: sorting seeds, shearing golden rams, collecting water of death, and retrieving a beauty cream from Hades. Psyche completes each task and becomes an immortal goddess, joining Cupid on Mount Olympus for eternity.

Self-help movement and therapy

Poet Robert Bly, Michael J. Meade, and others in the mythopoetic men's movement have used and developed the ideas of the hero's journey and the monomyth as a way to describe personal spiritual and psychological growth.

A key feature of the mythopoetic men's movement is the practice of retelling fairy tales and analyzing them to gain personal understanding. The movement often refers to archetypes from Jungian analytical psychology and focuses on topics such as gender roles, gender identity, and the well-being of modern men. Advocates of the movement frequently use storytelling combined with music, which they view as a modern form of "new age shamanism" popularized by Michael Harner around the same time.

One of the movement's most well-known supporters was poet Robert Bly, whose book Iron John: A Book About Men became a best-seller. The book is an analysis of the fairy tale "Iron John" by the Brothers Grimm.

The mythopoetic men's movement led to the creation of many groups and workshops, often led by authors such as Bly and Robert L. Moore. Some serious academic work emerged from the movement, including the founding of magazines and non-profit organizations.

A study published in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology in 2023 found that viewing life through the lens of the Hero's Journey narrative can greatly improve a person's sense of life meaning and resilience. This effect was observed consistently across different groups of people and research methods.

Criticism

Campbell’s ideas about myths, which are a type of folklore, have been criticized by experts who study folklore. One such expert, Barre Toelken, points out that many psychologists have not fully understood the complexity of folklore. He also notes that some psychologists influenced by Carl Jung have created theories based on only certain versions of stories that support their ideas. To explain this, Toelken uses an example from Clarissa Pinkola Estés’s book Women Who Run with the Wolves (1992), which he says incorrectly represents folklore. He also criticizes Campbell’s “monomyth” theory, which he claims only includes stories that match Campbell’s ideas while ignoring other stories that do not fit. Toelken says Campbell’s theory influenced other books, like Robert Bly’s Iron John: A Book About Men (1990), which he believes has similar problems with how it chooses sources.

Another expert, Alan Dundes, strongly disagrees with Campbell’s approach to folklore. Dundes calls Campbell a “non-expert” and gives examples of how Campbell’s theories lack proper support. Dundes also criticizes how the media and public television have made Campbell seem like an authority on myths, even though he is not a trained folklorist. Dundes says that the idea of “archetypes” (common symbols or patterns in myths) has been harmful to serious study of folklore.

According to Northup (2006), modern scholars of mythology have moved away from Campbell’s broad, universal categories. Consentino (1998) explains that it is important to highlight differences between myths as well as similarities, to avoid making myths seem the same when they are not. Ellwood (1999) adds that thinking in general terms about people or groups is a major flaw in studying myths.

Some scholars argue that Campbell’s categories are too vague to be useful. Crespi (1990) criticized Campbell’s work, saying it lacks the depth needed for serious study. He also points out that Campbell’s ideas are biased and ignore the cultural context of myths.

John Shelton Lawrence and Robert Jewett, a philosopher and religious scholar, have written about an “American Monomyth,” which they describe as a version of Campbell’s theory adapted for American stories. Their version of the journey includes a superhero who saves a community from evil, restores peace, and then disappears. A modern example of this is the character “Reacher” in books and TV shows by Lee Child, where the hero starts and ends the story in obscurity.

Campbell’s monomyth has also been criticized for focusing mainly on male heroes. Books like The Heroine’s Journey (1990) by Maureen Murdock and From Girl to Goddess (2010) by Valerie Estelle Frankel describe a different path for female heroes, one that emphasizes personal growth and inner change rather than external quests. Kim Hudson’s The Virgin’s Promise also outlines a feminine journey that focuses on spiritual and creative development.

In a 2014 interview, artist Alice Meichi Li said that the hero’s journey in traditional myths often starts with someone who already has advantages. She argues that female heroes in myths may not have the same support as male heroes and may return from their journeys to a world where they still face challenges. Li says these stories are not about bringing back a “magic solution” but about dealing with unfair treatment in society, such as unequal pay and discrimination.

In a 1999 article, science-fiction writer David Brin criticized the monomyth for supporting ideas that encourage unfair rule. He believes modern stories should move away from this pattern to promote more fair and equal values.