An arranged marriage is a type of marriage where the partners are chosen by someone other than the individuals themselves. This person is often the parents of the future spouses, and sometimes a marriage broker helps with the selection.

In most arranged marriages, both people agree to the match. However, in a forced marriage, one or both people do not agree to the marriage. In a child marriage, one or both people are too young to give their consent because they are under 18 years old. Marriages that happen without the consent of both people are strongly disapproved of by the United Nations.

Arranged marriages have been common in many cultures and religious traditions throughout history. Today, the practice is still widespread in some areas, including parts of South Asia, West Asia, North Africa, Central Asia, Southeast Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa. In other regions, such as Europe and East Asia, arranged marriages have become much less common since the 19th century.

History

Arranged marriages were common worldwide until the 18th century. Usually, parents, grandparents, or close relatives and trusted friends made marriage decisions. Some exceptions existed, such as courtship and betrothal practices in Renaissance Italy and Gandharva Vivah during the Vedic period in the Indian subcontinent.

Arranged marriages have decreased in countries where forced marriages were banned by law, such as in Imperial Russia or Japan, and in wealthy nations with more social freedom and individual choice. However, arranged marriages still occur in parts of Europe and North America among royal families, aristocrats, and some religious groups, such as certain fundamentalist Mormon communities in the United States. In most other regions, arranged marriages continue to some extent, often in a partially arranged form, alongside marriages chosen independently by individuals.

In France, arranged marriages were common until the Second World War. During the Renaissance in Italy, courtship and betrothal rites were practiced.

In Russia, arranged marriages were typical before the early 20th century, and most were within the same family or community.

Until the first half of the 20th century, arranged marriages were common among migrant families in the United States. These were sometimes called "picture-bride marriages" among Japanese-American immigrants because the bride and groom only knew each other through shared photographs before the wedding. These marriages were usually arranged by parents or relatives from the immigrants’ home countries. As immigrants adapted to new cultures, arranged marriages gradually changed to partially arranged marriages, where parents or friends introduced couples who met before marriage. Over time, later generations of immigrants often chose their own partners based on personal preferences, dating, and relationships, and married outside their ethnic groups. Similar patterns occurred in other parts of the world.

In China, arranged marriages—sometimes called blind marriages—were common before the mid-20th century. These marriages were decided by parents and older family members from both families. The bride and groom were usually told they would marry, without the right to refuse, even if they had never met before the wedding day.

Comparison

Marriages have been grouped into four types in scholarly studies:

• Forced arranged marriage: Parents or guardians choose the partners, and the individuals are not asked for their opinion or given a choice before the marriage.
• Consensual arranged marriage: Parents or guardians choose the partners, and the individuals are asked for their opinion. They can think about it and agree or disagree. Sometimes, the individuals meet before the marriage, as in the shidduch tradition among Orthodox Jews.
• Self-selected marriage: Individuals choose their own partners, and then parents or guardians are asked for their opinion. Parents or guardians can agree or disagree.
• Autonomous marriage: Individuals choose their own partners, and parents or guardians are not asked for their opinion or given a choice before the marriage.

Gary Lee and Lorene Stone suggest that most adult marriages in recent history fall between consensual arranged marriage and autonomous marriage. This is partly because marriage is a social institution. Similarly, Broude and Greene, after studying 142 cultures worldwide, found that 130 cultures have some form of arranged marriage.

Some societies have extreme examples of forced arranged marriage, especially in child marriages where girls are married before age 12. Examples include vani, which is still practiced in some tribal or rural areas of Pakistan, and Shim-pua marriage in Taiwan before the 1970s (Tongyangxi in China).

There are several types of arranged marriages:

• Arranged exogamous marriage: A third party selects the bride and groom, regardless of their social, economic, or cultural background.
• Arranged endogamous marriage: A third party selects the bride and groom from a specific social, economic, or cultural group.
• Consanguineous marriage: A type of arranged endogamous marriage where the bride and groom share a grandparent or close ancestor. Examples include marriages between first cousins, uncles and nieces, or second cousins. First cousin marriages are the most common, followed by second cousin and uncle-niece marriages. In parts of Saudi Arabia and Pakistan, 25 to 40% of all marriages are first cousin marriages. In some regions of North Africa and Central Asia, more than 65% to 80% of marriages are consanguineous.

In all types of arranged marriages, the bride and groom usually have the right to agree to the marriage. If they do not have this right, it is called a forced marriage. Forced marriages are different from regular arranged marriages because they do not involve the full and free agreement of both partners. Arranged marriages are often linked to religious traditions.

According to The Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 in India, non-consensual marriages and marriages where the bride is under 18 or the bridegroom is under 21 are not allowed for Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs, and Jains.

Non-consanguineous arranged marriage is when the bride and groom do not share a grandparent or close ancestor. This type is common in Hindu and Buddhist regions of South Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia, Christian Latin America, and sub-Saharan Africa. Consanguineous marriages are illegal in many parts of the United States and Europe. In the United Kingdom, uncle-niece marriages are considered illegal and incestuous, but cousin marriages are not forbidden. However, some people have called for banning first-cousin marriages due to health concerns. Consanguineous arranged marriages are common in many Islamic countries and among Muslim migrants in other parts of the world. They are not accepted or preferred in most Christian, Hindu, and Buddhist societies. Consanguineous arranged marriages were also common in some Jewish communities before the 20th century but are now less than 10% of all marriages.

Forced vs. arranged marriages

Forced and arranged marriages are two different practices found in many cultures. Each has its own rules and legal meanings.

A forced marriage happens when one or both people are made to marry without their agreement. This can happen through pressure, threats, or even physical harm. Forced marriage takes away a person’s right to choose and is against human rights. It often causes serious emotional pain.

An arranged marriage is different. In this type, family members or the community may suggest a partner based on traditions, beliefs, or social reasons. However, both people must agree to the marriage. Even though families may help, the final decision always rests with the individuals involved.

The main difference between these two practices is whether the people involved have the freedom to choose. Jennifer Burns, Director of Anti-Slavery Australia, explains: "Arranged marriages are common in Australia, but the couple decides if they want to marry. A forced marriage is the opposite. There is no true and free choice."

In some areas, especially in rural parts of the Middle East, North Africa, and South Asia, a woman who refuses an arranged marriage, tries to leave it, or is accused of "immoral" behavior may be seen as bringing shame to her family. This can lead to ridicule or harassment of male family members, and siblings may struggle to find a spouse. In extreme cases, families may kill the woman to force others to follow arranged marriage traditions. Unlike domestic violence, these killings often happen in public and involve other family members.

In India, matchmakers, called nayan, are often family friends or distant relatives. Some families choose not to use matchmakers because they fear misunderstandings between families. A matchmaker has two roles: as a marriage scout and as a negotiator. As a scout, the matchmaker searches for a possible partner. As a negotiator, they help families reach an agreement. The matchmaker considers factors like family background, financial situation, and reputation. Once a match is found, the matchmaker contacts the families and helps the couple communicate. Over time, families begin to talk directly with each other, and the couple can also speak to one another. After marriage plans are made, the matchmaker helps with the wedding, such as by providing jewelry or organizing the event. Matchmakers usually do not get paid but may receive gifts from the families of the newlyweds.

Causes and prevalence

Throughout history, arranged marriages have been influenced by many factors, including child marriage, late marriage, traditions, culture, religion, poverty, limited choices, disabilities, wealth, inheritance, politics, and social or ethnic conflicts. Child marriage often prevents individuals from making their own choices about marriage. In rural areas of East Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Latin America, poverty and limited opportunities, such as access to education, often force children into early arranged marriages. These marriages are most common in poor regions. Parents arrange child marriages to secure their child's financial future and strengthen social connections. They believe this reduces the family's economic burden by avoiding the costs of feeding, clothing, and educating a girl. By marrying their daughter to a family with good social standing, parents improve their own social status.

According to Warner, in countries with high rates of child marriage, parents or guardians usually arrange the marriage. These countries include Niger, Chad, Mali, Bangladesh, Guinea, Central African Republic, Afghanistan, Yemen, India, and Pakistan. Arranged child marriages are also found in parts of the Americas. In poor communities, each additional family member adds to the financial burden. In many cultures, women struggle to find work or are not allowed to work, making daughters a heavy economic burden. Some scholars suggest that arranging a daughter's marriage is a way to reduce this burden. Poverty is a major reason for arranged marriages.

This idea is supported by the decrease in arranged marriages in fast-growing economies in Asia. As daughters earn income through work, parents are less likely to arrange early marriages. Late marriage, especially after age 35, reduces the number of women available for independent marriages. This makes introductions and arranged marriages more common.

For example, in Japan, about 40% of women reach age 29 without being married. To help with late marriages, a traditional practice called miai-kekkon is returning. This involves the bride, groom, families, friends, and a matchmaker (nakōdo). The couple is chosen through a process involving families (iegara). They typically meet three times, in public or private, before deciding to marry.

Minority ethnic groups with limited partner options, especially when they face discrimination or segregation, often have arranged marriages within their communities. Examples include Sikh marriages in Canada between 1910 and 1980, arranged marriages among Hasidic Jews, and Japanese American immigrants before the 1960s who returned to Japan to marry family-arranged spouses. In some cases, women from Japan arrived in the U.S. as "picture brides," married to Japanese American men they had never met.

Arranged marriages can result from specific customs. In rural and tribal areas of Pakistan and Afghanistan, disputes, unpaid debts, or crimes like murder are settled by village elders in a council called a jirga. A common punishment for male crimes involves forcing the guilty family to marry their young daughters (aged 5–12) to the other family. This practice, called vani, swara, or sak, requires no consent from the girl or her parents.

In some Islamic countries, like Pakistan, a custom called watta satta involves swapping brother-sister pairs from two families as spouses. This creates a situation where the wife is also the sister-in-law of both families. About 30% of marriages in western rural Pakistan are watta satta, and 75% of these are between cousins or other relatives. Some immigrant families prefer this traditional practice.

Arranged marriages were also used historically by rulers and leaders to form political alliances, trade agreements, or peace. For example, when a king married his son to a daughter from another state, it showed equality and signaled the king’s state was more powerful. One example is Marie Antoinette, the fourth daughter of Maria Theresa, who married the dauphin of France, later becoming King Louis XVI.

Examples

Throughout most of human history, marriage has been a social system that helped families have children and pass property from one generation to the next. In some cultures, especially among wealthy royal or noble families, marriages were arranged to help protect or manage the family’s wealth.

In some traditions, such as Tongyangxi (also called Shim-pua marriage in Taiwan), a poor family might send a young daughter to live with a richer family as a servant. The girl would work without pay and later become the wife of the family’s son. This practice was meant to help the girl escape poverty and provide the wealthy family with free labor and a wife. A similar custom called Zhaozhui involved a wealthy family without an heir adopting a boy from another family. The boy would take the family’s name, marry the family’s daughter, and help keep the family’s wealth within the bloodline. Similar arranged marriages to protect family wealth were common in Korea, Japan, and other regions.

A dowry is a gift of money, property, or valuable items given by a bride’s family to the groom after marriage. As noted by Santana Flanigan, dowries began as gifts for upper-class marriages but later became a requirement for marriage during the medieval period. The dowry system is harmful because it treats women as financial burdens. In some cases, families cannot afford to give a dowry, which can prevent their daughters from marrying. This may lead to serious problems, such as depression or even suicide. To address this, India passed the Dowry Prohibition Act in 1961, making it illegal to demand, give, or accept a dowry. However, the law had unclear rules. For example, it allowed couples to receive wedding gifts like money or clothes, which some people used as a way to avoid the law. In 1984, the law was updated to require couples to record wedding gifts, including who gave them and their value, to help distinguish between gifts and dowries. Later changes to India’s legal system also aimed to protect women from violence linked to dowry demands, such as physical abuse, acid attacks, or burning.

In some cultures, particularly in parts of Africa and the Middle East, a groom’s family pays money or property to the bride’s family for the right to marry her. This is called "bride-wealth" and is sometimes called "lobola" or "wine carrying." The money is usually kept by the bride’s family and helps support them financially. Male relatives of the bride often play a key role in arranging her marriage to a man who offers the most valuable payment.

Some religions only recognize marriages within their faith. For example, Islam prohibits Muslim women from marrying non-Muslim men. This rule influences arranged marriages among Muslim communities in Europe. The Apostolic Christian Church, a Christian group, also practices arranged marriages.

In Hindu communities, religion is very important. Parents often arrange marriages for their children to ensure both partners share the same religion. If two people from different religions fall in love, one must convert to the other’s faith. It is not socially accepted for people to marry outside their religion, so parents often arrange marriages within the same faith. Hindus also follow the caste system, which divides people into social groups. People are taught from a young age to marry within their caste. If someone falls in love with someone from a different caste, their family may threaten them. The lowest caste, called "untouchables," is treated unfairly and is not allowed to interact with higher castes.

Controversy

Arranged marriages are often discussed by scholars because some people question whether they are used to take advantage of international immigration laws. Others believe arranged marriages may harm human rights, especially the rights of women. Scholars also wonder if arranged marriages are more likely to last and help raise children, and whether couples in these marriages can have a loving and respectful relationship.

In the United Kingdom, people have debated whether some international arranged marriages are not truly the couple's choice. Some believe these marriages are created to help immigrants gain residency or citizenship in the country. These concerns have grown because some couples divorce after meeting legal requirements for staying married. A UK lawmaker, Ann Cryer, has pointed out examples of this happening among some West Asian Muslim families. Similar issues have also been reported in the United States.

International groups, like UNICEF, support laws that ban arranged marriages for children and forced marriages. The United Nations has rules, such as Article 15 and 16 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), that also support banning these practices.

Arranged marriages are a topic of disagreement. Some activists, like Charlotte Bunch, argue that when parents or family members arrange marriages, they often assume the couple will be heterosexual and may pressure individuals into marriages they do not truly want. Bunch believes all marriages should be chosen freely by the individuals involved.

However, others argue that banning arranged marriages could harm people who want to marry and may benefit from family help in finding a partner. For example, Willoughby suggests that arranged marriages can work because they reduce stress about finding a spouse. Family members can offer advice about a partner’s background and help couples decide if they are a good match. They may also provide financial help, housing, and emotional support for the couple.

Michael Rosenfeld says that the differences between arranged marriages and marriages chosen by individuals are not as large as some people think. He explains that many people choose to marry others who are similar to them in background, age, interests, and social class—factors that parents might also consider. He argues that if the pool of possible partners is large, the differences between the two types of marriages are not as big as some believe. Others agree with this idea.

In the United States, laws exist to prevent forced marriages. According to the United States Citizenship and Immigration Services, forced marriages can happen to people of any race, religion, or background. They often occur because of cultural or religious reasons. In these cases, families may believe the couple should marry, but the individuals involved do not want to. Forced marriages are illegal in the United States and can lead to legal consequences, such as charges for violence or abuse. In arranged marriages, families may help choose a partner, but they do not force someone to marry if they do not want to. The level of family involvement is often used to distinguish between arranged and forced marriages.

Divorce rates have increased in the European Union and the United States as more people choose to marry on their own. In cultures where arranged marriages are common, like among Hindus in India and Ultra-Orthodox Jews in Israel, divorce rates are much lower. A 2012 study found that about 53.25% of marriages worldwide are arranged, and the divorce rate for these marriages is about 6.3%. This has led some scholars to ask if arranged marriages are more stable than marriages chosen by individuals. Others suggest that the low divorce rate might not reflect happiness but could instead show how hard it is to get a divorce. Some people may stay in unhappy marriages to avoid being shunned by their community.

Small studies have been done to compare the happiness of people in arranged marriages versus those in self-chosen marriages. Results vary—some studies say people in self-chosen marriages are happier, while others find no major differences. Some researchers have questioned the reliability of these studies because they used small groups of people.

Scholars also ask whether love and respect are greater in arranged marriages than in self-chosen ones. Epstein suggests that love can develop over time in arranged marriages. However, neither type of marriage guarantees happiness, and some arranged marriages end in cold or unhappy relationships with reports of abuse.

In some cultures, arranged marriages are common, and there may be greater inequality between men and women. Some people believe that arranged marriages can lead to more satisfying relationships because couples have realistic expectations and are not influenced by emotions. Others think these marriages can cause unhappiness. Studies show that many people choose arranged marriages willingly. One study found that 4% of arranged marriages end in divorce, compared to 40% of self-chosen marriages in the United States. Some research also found that men in arranged marriages in Japan reported higher sexual satisfaction than those in self-chosen marriages, while people in self-chosen marriages reported similar levels of satisfaction.